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TAMIL HERITAGE...
the Tamils are an ancient people
Chera Dynasty
Introduction
The Chera dynasty was one of the ancient
Tamil dynasties that ruled southern India from
ancient times until around the fifteenth century CE.
The Early Cheras ruled over the
Coimbatore,
Karur and
Salem Districts in South India, which now forms
part of the modern day
Tamil Nadu (Kongu
Nadu). The other two major Tamil dynasties were
the
Cholas in the eastern
Coromandel Coast and
Pandyas in the south central peninsula. These
dynasties began ruling before the Sangam era (300
BCE - 200 CE) during which
Tamil language,
arts and
literature flourished.
The Sangam Chera capital was
Vanchi Muthur (otherwise called Karuvur, modern
Karur).[1].
Chera territory included western and south area of
Tamilnadu and also areas close to Malai Nadu or hill
country (modern Kerala]). Chera rulers warred
frequently with their neighbouring kingdoms. They
sometimes inter-married with the families of the
rival kings to form political alliances.
Throughout the reign of the Cheras, trade
continued to bring prosperity to the Tamil Country
(part of which is modern north Kerala), with spices,
ivory, timber, pearls and gems being exported to
Egypt, Rome, Greece, Phoenicia, Arabia, Mesopotamia
and Persia.
Evidence for extensive foreign trade from
ancient times is available throughout the
Malabar coast, from the Roman, Greek and Arabic
coins unearthed from Kollam, Kodungallur, Eyyal
(near Trissur) in Northern Kerala.
Muziris, has been referenced by ancient
writers, such as the author of the
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea to be an
inland port probably near Kodungallur.
Sangam Cheran coins and inscriptions are
found in
Karur,
Erode and
Coimbatore region of modern
Tamil Nadu (Kongu
Nadu).
While Cheras had their own religion (Hinduism),
other religious traditions came to this area during the period of the Chera
kings.
Jainism came to
Kongu Nadu by the second century BCE.
 History
In early Chenthamizh literature, the Chera rulers are referred to as
Cheral, Kuttuvan, Irumporai, Kollipurai and Athan. Chera rulers were also
called Kothai or Makothai. The nobility among the Cheras were called
Cheraman in general. The word Kerala, of possible Prakrit origins, does not
appear in
Sangam Literature.
Ashoka's edicts mention an independent dynasty known by the name
Ceraputta, who were outside Ashoka's empire. The unknown author of
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions Chera as Cerobothra
whose capital is Karur, while
Pliny, the Roman historian of the first century, calls it
Caelobothras. It is believed that religiously the Cheras were Shaivites.[2]
The kings of the dynasty referred to themselves as Vanavar.[3]
Sangam
Cheras
The only source available for us regarding the early Chera Kings is the
anthologies of the
Sangam literature. Scholars now generally agree that this literature
belongs to the first few centuries CE.[4]
The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled. The
Sangam literature is full of names of the kings and the princes, and of the
poets who extolled them. Despite a rich literature that depicts the life and
work of these people, these are not worked into connected history so far.
Their capital is stated to be modern
Karur in Tamilnadu and were also called Kongars.
Pathirruppaththu, the fourth book in the
Ettuthokai anthology mentions a number of Chera Kings of the Chera
dynasty. Each King is praised in ten songs sung by the Court Poet and the
Kings are in the following order:
- Nedum Cheralathan,
- Palyane Chel Kezhu Kuttuvan,
- Kalankai Kanni Narmudi Cheral,
- Kadal Pirakottiya Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan,
- Attu Kottu Pattu Cheralathan,
- Chelva Kadunko Azhi Athan,
- Thakadur Erintha Perum Cheral Irumporai,
- Kudako Ilam Cheral Irumporai.
The first two kings were the sons of Uthiyan Cheralathan and Veliyan
Nallini. The third, fourth and fifth kings were sons of Nedum Cheralathan,
while the mother of fourth King (also known as Chenkuttuvan) was Chola
Princess Manikilli. Chelva Kadunko Vazhiyathan was the son of Anthuvan
Cheral Irumporai and Porayan Perumthevi. Perum Cheral Irumporai was the son
of Vazhiyathan and Ilam Cheral Irumporai was the son of a Chera ruler
Kuttuvan Irumporai (son of Mantharan Cheral Irumporai).
Archaeology has also found epigraphic evidence regarding these early
Cheras.[5]
The most important of these is the Pugalur (Aranattarmalai) inscription.
This inscription refers to three generations of Chera rulers Adam Cheral
Irrumporai, his son Perumkadungo, and his son Ilamkadungo. The charter was
issued when Perum Kadungo was the ruler monarch and Ilam Kadungo was
appointed prince. Athan refers only to a crowned King of Chera dynasty who
accepted this title at the time of coronation. Athan Cheral Irumporai was
the son of Perum Cheral Irumporai. It therefore follows that Perumkadungo
was the son of a crowned King of the Chera Dynasty. Perum Kadunko means that
he was the Senior Ko (Senior ruler) of Kadunadu, located in the Tamilnadu
side of the Sahya Mountains.
Purananuru
refers to Udiyan Cheral, who probably ruled in the first � second centuries
CE. It is said that he fed the rival armies during the war of
Mahabharata. Imayavaramban Neduncheralathan, another Sangam age
king claimed to have conquered up to the Himalayas and to have inscribed his
emblem in the face of the mountains.
Senguttuvan was another famous Chera, whose contemporary
Gajabahu II of
Lanka
according to
Mahavamsa
visited the Chera country.[6]
The early Cheras controlled a large territory of
Kongu Nadu. They also ruled the kodunthamizh regions of
Travancore (Venadu) and the
Malabar (Kuttanadu) west coast through vassals. They were in contact
with the
Satavahanas in the north and with the
Romans and
Greeks.[7]
Trade flourished overseas and there was a considerable exchange of gold and
coins, as seen by archaeological evidence and literature. The Romans brought
vast amounts of gold in exchange of 'Kari' (Pepper) from Malainadu.
[2]
Bhakti
era Cheras
Little is known about the Cheras between c. third century CE and the
eight century CE. An obscure dynasty, the
Kalabhras, invaded the Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms
and ruled for around three centuries. They were displaced by the Pallavas
and the Pandyas in the sixth century CE.
A
Pandya ruler, Arikesari Parankusa Maravarman
(c.730 � 765CE), mentioned in a number of Pandya
copper-plate inscriptions, was a prominent ruler
during this period. He claims to have defeated a
prominent Chera king. The name of the Chera king is
not known, however from the details of the battles
between the Pandya and the Chera, the Chera
territory ceded seems to have included the entire
Malabar and Travancore (Kuttanadu and Venadu) and
the southern Pandya country from
Kanyakumari to
Thirunelveli the seat of the Cheras being in
Karur
Kongu Nadu.
The Chera kings took the title of Perumal
during this period and patronised the
Vaishnavite
sect. Kulasekara Alwar who ruled in the 8th century
became a devotional Vaishnavite poet. Pallavas also
mention in their inscriptions about their battles
with the Cheras.
Pulakesin II, in his
Aihole
inscription mentioned " Pulikesin II, driving the
Pallava behind the forts of Kanchi, reached as far
south as the Kaveri river, and there caused
prosperity to the Chola, Chera and Pandya".[8]
In the reign of Pandya Parantaka Nedumjadaiyan (765 � 790), the Cheras
were still in Karur and were a close ally of the
Pallavas. Pallavamalla Nadivarman defeated the Pandya Varaguna with the
help of a Chera king. Cultural contacts between the Pallava court and the
Chera country were common.[9]
The
Saivite saint
Cheraman Perumal and the other is the
Vaishnavite saint
Kulasekhara, were famous in the Hindu religious
movements. Kulasekhara became one of the celebrated
Alvars and his poems came to be called the
Perumal Thirumozhi.
Cheraman Perumal ruled around the eighth and the
ninth centuries. In this Kulasekhara calls himself
Kongar Kon (the king of the Kongu people)
hailing from Kollinagar (Karur).
Adi Shankara was his contemporary. Kongumandala
Satakam also says that Cheraman Perumal went to
Kayilai with Sundarar from Kongu Nadu.
Notes
- ^
Nagaswami, R. (1995).
Roman Karur: A peep into Tamil's past. Brahad Prakashan,
Madras.
- ^
P. 104
Indian Anthropologist: Journal of the Indian Anthropological
Association By Indian Anthropological Association
- ^
P. 15 The Ācārya, Śakara of Kāladī: A Story By Savita R.
Bhave, M. G. Gyaltsan, Muaf� Amīn, 1933- Madugula, I S Madugula
- ^
The age of Sangam is established through the correlation between the
evidence on foreign trade found in the poems and the writings by
ancient Greek and Romans such as Periplus of the Erythrian Sea. See
Nilakanta Sastri, K.A., History of South India, pp 106
- ^
See report in
Frontline, June/July 2003
[1]
- ^
See
Mahavamsa. Since
Senguttuvan (Kadal pirakottiya Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan) was a
contemporary of Gajabahu II he was the Chera King during 170-185 CE.
- ^
These foreigners were called Yavana in the ancient times
- ^
See Verse 31
Aihole Inscription of Pulakesi II
- ^
See A History of South India � pp 146 � 147
References
[The
text of this article from
Wikepedia is published here under the terms of
the
GNU Free Documentation License.]
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The Chera Coins - Dr.R.Nagaswamy,
Tamil Arts AcademyThe coinage of the
Cheras has not received the attention it deserves. An
attempt is made here to outline its features.
Aristotle mentions a place called Keras,
identified with the Chera country.(1) The Taitriya
Aranyaka refers to "Cherapada". This is taken to refer
to the Chera country by P. T. Srinivasa Iyangar.(2) B.
Keith also refers to it as the Chera country.(3) It is
not unlikely that the Chera country was known well
enough in the time of Taitriya Aranyaka to be referred
to in it. The Periplus mentions Kerala
as "Cerobothra" while Pliny, the Roman historian of the
first century, calls it Caelobothras. In contemporary
Tamil country, it is invariably referred to as the Chera
country(4) So it is evident that the original name of
the people and country was Chera as mentioned in Tamil
literature and all the foreign notices. K. A. Nilakanta
Sastri places Krala in South Malabar extending upto
Central Travancore. He holds that it also included the
district styled Mushika, Strabo"s "Mausikanos".(5) Asoka
refers to Kelalaputo (also read as Ketalaputo) in his
Girnar inscription.(6) The ending putra in Kelalaputo
etc., denotes the children of the soil."(7)
Cheramans
It is necessary to understand the words
Kelalaputo and Satiyaputo occurring in Asoka"s
inscription. In early Tamil literature the Cheras are
referred to as Cheralas and Cheramans. The word Kerala
does not occur in Sangam works. This is a Prakrit
tradition. However the Kalsi inscription of Asoka gives
the name as Kelaputo standing for Cheraman.(8) The
suffix Puto (Skt. Putra) was assumed by some dynasties
of the South like the Satavahanas who assumed such
titles as vasitti putra, and Gautami putra. The
interesting silver coin of "Vasishti putra Satakai"
bears the Prakrit legend Vasitti putasa Siri Satakanisa
on the observe. On the reverse the legend is given in
Tamil as Vacitti makan Tiru Catakani.(9) The point of
interest here is the word makan appearing as an
equivalent of the wordputa found on the obverse. The
word makan is often shortened as man in Tamil, Perumakan
often occurring as Peruman. So his Cheerala Puta of the
Asoka rcord stands for Cheraman. Satiyaputa has been
rightly identified with Atiya. The word Satiyaputa
stands for Atiyaman. A point worthy of note at this
stage is Asoka"s reference to these two rulers with the
appendix puto, while he does not include the term for
either the Chola or the Pandya. In doing so Asoka has
preserved to us the early Tamil tradition. In early
Sangam works, most of the Cheras are called Cheramans
and Atiyas, Atiyaman. This term man was not appended to
either Chola or Pandya. So it is evident that the usage
Cheraman and Atiyaman quite popular in Tamilnadu, was
known even in the imperial court of Asoka. That would
show that by the time ofAsoka, in the 3rd century B.C.,
the Tamil country had well organised states,
administered by rulers of eminence and that they were in
active contact with Pataliputra. In fact Asoka says that
his emissaries went to these courts.
The Beginning
The earliest Chera king referred to in
Tamil literature seems to be Udiyan Cheral, who is
placed in 17 A.D. by Sesha Iyer(10) and 130 A.D. by K.A.
Nilakanta Sastri.(11) Sastri mainly relies on the
Gajabahu synchronism, while Sesha Iyer mainly on the
date of burning of Madurai by Kannaki as referred to in
the Silappadhikaram. Sesha Iyer"s date
is arbitrary while Sastri"s view needs reevaluation in
the light of recent studies of Tamil cave inscriptions,
Quite a considerable number of inscriptions have been
found in recent times hrowing valuable light on the
evolution of the script which also has to be considered
in determining the age. The most important is the
Pugalur (Aranattarmalai) inscription.(12) This refers to
three generations of Chera rulers Adam Cheral
Irrumporai, his son Perumkadungo, and his son
Ilamkadungo. The charter was issued when Perum Kadungo
was the ruling monarch and Ilam Kadungo was appointed
crown prince. On grounds of paleography, the inscription
is assigned to the first-second century A.D. It would be
more appropriate the ascribe it to the first century
A.D. It is not unlikely that the Cheras of the Sangam
classics ruled during the first two centuries of the
Christian era. One point of interest is the reference to
a gold merchant of Karur in the pugalur epigraph.(13) It
shows there were flourishing mercantile communities
including traders in gold, in the capital of the Cheras.
Another point is that Karur is hardly 12 km. from
Pugalur. Besides this Chera epigraph, the recent
excavations at Karur by the Tamilnadu State Department
of Archaeology has yielded inscribed pot-sherds with
Brahmi inscriptions. Further Roman Amphora pieces and
rouletted ware have been found. The find of Kaeoline
ware and Russet coated ware in excavations attest to the
active contact of this capital with the Romans. Already
Karur has yielded several hundred Roman coins. This
would almost clinch he vexed question of the capital of
the Cheras. Karur (which was also known as Vanci) in
Trichy district was the capital of the Cheras of the
Sangam age. The suggestion that Udiyan
Cheral was the founder of the dynasty(14) cannot be
accepted. If he came to the throne at the beginning of
the Sangam age, there ought to have ruled many Chera
rulers atleast from the reign of Asoka till the reign of
udiyan for nearly 250 years. The question would arise
who was the Chera ruling at the time of Asoka. The other
possibility is that some of the Cheras mentioned in
Sangam literature should have lived in the centuries
before Christ. This needs further study. A list of
outstanding Cheras and their achievements is given below
for a proper appreciation of their economy and coinage.
UDIYAN CHERAL
The earliest Chera to be known by name
is Udiyan Cheraladan who had the title "Perum Chorru
Udiyan". He was ruling a prosperous land and wealth,
yielded by the deep sea and also the treasures brought
in vessels by rich foreign merchants. He is said to have
fed the armies of the Kauravas and the Pandavas in the
Mahabharata war. He was a great patron of Vedic
sacrifices and was served by faithful ministers. His
royal kitchen is said to have been at Kulumur identified
with Kulukur in North Travancore.(15) He had the title
Vanavaramban and was a great patron of poets. His queen
was Nallini, the daughter of Veliyan Venman. He is said
to have ruled from the east to the west coast and is
praised for his elephant corps and cavalry.
NEDUM CHERAL ADAN
Udiyan Cheral"s son was Nedum Cheral
Adan, who had the title Imayavaramban. He conquered
seven kings and ruled a vast territory which is said to
have extended from Kanyakumari to the Himalayas. He
conquered the gold producing Konganam of Nannan. This
conquest is praised by many pots. He is also credited
with imprinting the Chera emblem on the Himalayas. The
vanquishedYavanas brought tribute from their slips,
which included golden images, rubies and other nidhis.
He conquered Mantai or Marandai; captured and imprisoned
the Yavanas; tied their hands at the back and poured
ghee over their head. Rich donations of jewels to
temples and 500 villages in Umbarkadu were gifted by
him.(16)
PALYANAI SELKELU KUTTUVAN
Imayavaramban"s brother was Playanai
Selkelu Kuttuvan the Lord of Puli Nadu, and Ayirai malai
(identified with Aiyirai Malai in Central Travancore by
Sesha Iyer).(17) He conquered Kongarnadu; followed the
path of Brahmins, assisted Palai Gautaman to perform ten
Yagas. He adored the Gods and received guests by
offering them sacrificial feeding. He is called the
leader of Malavas (Kolli and Paccur area). Nedum
Paradayar was his Minister. He conquered Ahappa and
Umbarkadu. His rule extended from the east to the west
coast. He strengthened his elephant corps and adored
Durga at Ayirai.
NARMUDICHERAL
Narmudi Cheral wore a special crown made
of gold (in the form of Kalamkay) and won the title
Kalamkaykanni Narmudicceral. He was a son of
Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral. He won a decisive victory
over Anji of Tagadur and Nannan of Pulinadu. (Sesha Iyer
identifies Tagadur with a place in Karnataka, though he
does not locate it exactly).(18) He was a great
Vaishnavite. The temple of Vishnu where he worshiped is
identified with Thiru Anantapuram. Veliyam a village of
him is described.(19) Narumudic Cheral gifted 40 lakhs
gold coins to the poet Kappiyanar.
SENGUTUVAN
Senguttuvan, the greatest of the Chera
rulers was a son of Imaya Varamban, through Manakkilli,
a Chola princess. He conquered Viyalur of Nannan Velman,
crossed the river and captured Kodukur, and defeated
Palaiyan. Nine Chola princess fought against his
brother-in-law Killi. They were defeated by Senguttuvan.
Senguttuvan waged a successful war against Kongar, won a
decisive battle against the Yavanas on the sea and got
the title Kadal Pirakkottiya.(20) The ships of the
Yavanas called in large numbers, at the port of Musiri
and in exchange for gold took back cargoes of pepper and
other products.(21) He received a request from Satakani
for assistance and went on a northern expedition. He
ruled for fifty five years. He is celebrated for
erecting a temple to Kannaki. A great patron of letters
and dance, he gifted the revenue from Umbarkadu, to the
poet Paranar.
ADUKOTPATTU CHERALADAN
Another son of Imaya Varamban and
brother of Narmudic Cheral was Adukopattuc Cheraladan.
Valuable commodities brought into his port were stored
in godowns. He invited people from other areas and
bestowed presents on them. His kingdom extend beyond the
port of Naravu, identified with "Naoura" of the Periplus
or the "Nitra" of Pliny, identified with Mangalore.
Karikala"s opponent Chraman Perum Cheral Adan is
identified with this ruler by Sesha Iyer.(22) He
rewarded a poetess, Naccellaiyar, with gold. After rule
of 38 years he was defeated at Venni and died.
SELVAKKADUNGO VALIDAN
A son of Antuvan, Selvakkadungo Valiadan
was sung about by Kapilar. He held, Brahmins in great
respect. At the conclusion of a yaga, he dedicated the
village Okantur to Vishnu his tutelary deity. He gifted
100,000 gold coins to Kapilar and all the land one could
see from the top of a hill. He was an idol of the poets.
Mantaram Poraiyan Kadungo, Pasumput Poraiyan and
Perumput Poraiyan are probably identical with him. He
ruled for 25 years and died at Chikkarpalli.
PERUMCHERAL IRUMPORAI
Perumcheral Irumporai was a son of
Selvakkadungo, through Paduman devi, a daughter of
Velavi Koman. He defeated the Atiyaman chief at Nirkur
situated at Kolli Kurram; captured Tagadur and Nocci and
defeated the two rulers. He gifted his entire throne,
palace and 900,000 Kanam, to Arisil Kilar. But the poet
gave back the kingdom and was happy to serve as a
minister. Also called Kodai Marba, he ruled for
seventeen years.
ILAMCHERAL IRUMPORAI
Ilam Cheral Irumporai was a son of
Kuttuvan Irumporai through Cellai, daughter, of Maiyur
Kilan Venmal Antuvan. He defeated the two kings, Vicci,
Ilam Palaiyan Maran of Vittai, Perumchola the ruler of
Potti; "captured Vanci-mutur and five forts; had Maiyur
Kilan as his minister, brought the great Bhuta from
Vanci, (of the catukka), gifted 32,000 Kanam, gifted
lands and villages. His land abounded in sandal wood and
ahil. He was the lord of Tondi, Kongar Nadu, Kuttuvar
Nadu and Puli Nadu, and ruled for sixteen years.
PALAI PADIYA PERUMKADUNGO
Sesha Iyer holds that Perumkadungo came
in the main line.(23) He was a ruler of Vanci and a
friend of the Pandya. He is said to have been posterior
to Senguttvan was an eminent poet and is probably
identical with Perumkadungo of the Pugalur record.(24)
TRADE
The ports were even more numerous on the
west coast than on the east and in closer contact with
the traders of Roman empire. Musiri was perhaps the
leading emporium in the Purananuru, speaks of the sale
of fish for paddy, of bags of pepper, and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats
from the large ships to the shore. Bandar and Kodumanam
were other ports with a wealth of sea-borne imports.
Bandar was noted for its pearls and Kodumanam for rare
jewels. Mention is made of the abundance of quarterzite
precious stones in the hills of the Chera country and we
find allusions to artisans skilled in the repair and
refitting of ships".(25) Pliny in his Natural History
states that "Musiris was the first emporium of
India;(26) He adds "The station for ships is at a
distance from the shore and cargoes have to be landed
and shipped by means of little boats. There reigned
there, when I wrote this, Coelobothros". The Periplus
says, "Musiri a city at the height of prosperity was two
miles distance from he mouth of the river on which it is
situated and was the seat of the Government of the
Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras.(27)
It is evident from the above that the Cheras
were the most powerful rulers among the Sangam monarchs and
controlled a vast territory from Karur in Tiruchirapalli
district to Musiris in the west coast which covered a part
of southern Karnataka and Konkan. They were in contact with
the Satavahans. Among the Tamil kings, the Cheras are
mentioned most frequently in connection with the Yavanas,
either subduing them on the sea or encouraging their trade.
Besides agriculture the fact that trade flourished in their
land gets repeated mention. Though barter like fish for
paddy, is mentioned there was considerable exchange of gold
and currency, proved by archaeological evidence and
literature. Gold merchants from Karur mentioned in the
Pugalur epigraph of the Cheras attest the important trade in
this precious metal. The Romans brought vast amounts of
gold. The Cheras frequently seized the gold producing
Konkan. The Cheras of the Sangam age must have issued a
currency. The coinage of the Cheras may be
studied under three groups, (a) the punch marked coins
found in Tamilnadu, (b) The Roman coins found in large
numbers and (c) the local issues.
PUNCH MARKED COINS
About the punch marked coins of Kerala,
Parameshwara Lal Gupta states "Except two hoards the
finds of coins are not properly recorded anywhere, nor
are they kept secure to enable one to study them". One
of the hoards consists of 184 coins of silver punch
marked coins found in Kottayam distsrict and the other
from Iyyal village, Cochin district. The latter includes
12 gold Roman coins, 71 Roman dinarius and 34 silver
punch marked coins. The date of the deposit may be
placed convincingly around 100 A.D."(28)
Mr. Gupta"s analysis shows that Roman
coins were in circulation along with the punch marked
coins and (b) by 100 A.D. the Roman coins have found
their way to Tamil country.
ROMAN COINS
The archaeological evidence from
Arikkamedu, should be considered as Wheeler places the
Roman settlement at Arikkamedu at 25 B.C. or to the
beginning of the Christian era, the phase of Arretine
being circa 50 A.D.(29) "Since Muziri was the port of
inflow of Roman coins into India, it is reasonable to
expect may finds of Roman coins in this state. But
curiously enough we have hardly any knowledge of the
find of Roman coins in this state. Besides Iyyal, the
only other hoard noticed so far is Kottayam".(30) The
find of gold and silver Roman coins along with the
silver punch marked coin in the hoard suggests that the
Roman coins were not only imported but that the people
of the country accepted them as current coins. Roman
coins were of the same weight as punch marked coins.
It would therefore be reasonable to
infer that the commercial potentialities of the Tamil
country had reached an attractive stage even in the
first century B.C. to attract Roman trade. It is also
seen that most of the items sought by the Romans were
the products of the Chera country. The Chera country
should have had a developed economy for such a trade. So
the date 2nd century A.D. assigned by K.A. Nilakanta
Sastri seems to me too late and I am inclined to place
it in Ist century B.C. to Ist century A.D. That the
punch marked coins were in circulation in the Chera
country is attested. In the literature of the period we
get references to the following currency-Ka, Pon, Kanam
and Kasu. What these mean can at best only be
conjectured. In the Sangan age gold, silver, copper and
probably lead were well known. The Chera king
Narmudi-cheral gifted 40,00,000 pon to the poet
Kappiyan. Adu kotpattuc Cheraladan gifted nine Ka gold
and 100,000 Kanam to the poetess Naccellai. The amount
of nine Ka gold was given for ornament.(31)
Selvakkadungo gifted 100,000 Kanam to Kapilar; Arisil
Kilr got 900,000 Kanam from Perumcheral Irumporai-and
Perum Kunrur Kilar got 32,000 Kanam from Ilam Cheral..
LOCAL COINS
The third group of coins to be studied
is the local issues of the Cheras. So far no coin has
been identified as their issue. Judging from the volume
of trade, mentioned under Cheras, it is unlikely that
the Cheras did not issue any coin of their own. In this
connection a particular group of coins found in large
numbers in Tamilnadu but ascribed to the Pandyas
deserves re-examination. A large number
of copper coins are square in shape, carrying on the
observe well exequted figures of elephants, standing
either with or without riders. The elephant is topped by
a number of auspicious emblems, like Chakra, Srivatsa
Kalasa, Chaitya etc. On the reverse is a triangular
symbol topped by a semi circular arch. All most all
writers on South Indian numismatics have taken these
coins as Pandya issues.(32) The main reason seems to be
the triangular symbol on the reverse, taken to be a
conventional fish, as suggested by Codrington.(33) This
was doubted by others who took it to represent the plan
of the city of Madurai, with the river Vaigai.(34) The
symbol is certainly not a fish. This is evident from the
fact that there is a semi circular arch above the
diagram. Secondly it cannot be considered the plan of
Madurai. Fortunately we have a description in ancient
literature of the lay out of Madurai. A verse in the
Paripadal(35) tells us that the city was in the form of
a fully blossomed lotus flower, the royal palace
occupaying the centre. The triangular diagram on the
reverse of the coin, does not conform to this
description. Thirdly though the diagram appears on the
reverse, it is clear that it is not the principal device
on the coin. The main motif is the elephant on the
obverse. The elephant symbol occurs on
the punch marked coins and also on some of the
Satavahana coins. But in the issues found in Tamil nadu,
it should be associated with the dynasty which used it
as its emblem. It has been mentioned earlier, that it
was the Cheras, who are frequently referred to as the
owners of large groups of elephants. One of the Cheras
assumed the title "Chera of several elephants". It is an
indisputable fact that the elephant was closely
associated with the Chera dynasty. Even in the mediaeval
period, the coins of indisputably Chera origin, showing
the bow and palmyra tree device, portray the elephant.
So the square coins with the elephant device must be
considered the issues of the Cheras of the Sangam age.
That the Cheras were the most dominant rules of the
Sangam age has been mentioned earlier. Among the early
coins of the Tamil country, the square coins with
elephant, are found in greater numbers. This confirms
our presumption. A word must be said
about the so called Buddhist symbols on these coins.
That symbols which include Chaitya, Cakra, Srivatsa,
Kalasa etc. are auspicious symbols of the pre-Buddhist
age is well known though they are frequently met within
the Buddhist context as well. All they seek to represent
seems to be prosperity and plenty. It is
interesting that in the Sangam works the Chera kings are
said to ascend the neck of the elephants.(36) In the
coins under discussion where riders are shown, the
principal rider is shown on the neck of the elephant. In
some of he coins, Brahmi legends are said to occur I had
no access so far to such a coin. A few
other coins, also square in shape but carrying a bull or
fish(37) are also ascribed to the Pandyas. But these are
issues of other dynasties. This will be discussed in he
sequel.
VILVELI THE GREAT CHERA
There is an interesting work in Tamil
called Pandikkovai,(38) sung in praise of a Pandya
ruler, Arikesari Parankusa Maravarman. This ruler is
obviously Arikesari, the son of Pandya Sendan.(39) His
inscription recently found in Madurai, shows that he was
a great conqueror and that he ruled for fifty years.
(650-700 A.D.) He is mentioned in a number of copper
plate charters of the Pandyas, where his exploits are
mentioned. His principal opponent was a Chera whom he
defeated in a number of battles. Pandikkovai, and the
copper plates mention a number of places where he
defeated the Chera. It is specific about these
battlefields. From this we can surmise the extent of the
Chera power. It is evident that he was the most
outstanding Chera king of the early period. His capital
was Vanci-the modern Karur. From Karur in Tiruchy
district his empire extended to the west coast, and all
the south-west coast including the whole of modern and
the whole of south Pandya country from Kanyakumari to
Tirunelveli. The Pandya"s first battle
with the Chera was at Arrukudi. This place might
possibly be identified with Arrangudi in Ramnad
district. Among the battlefields mentioned often are
Sevur and Ten Pulandai. In both these places, the
opponent of the Pandya was the Chera. These two places
have not been identified yet. It is possible that Sevur
is identical with Sevur in Ramnad district where many
historic battles where fought, the most famous being the
battle between Aditya Chola II and Vira Pandya in the
10th century A.D. This place is near Arrukkudi. The
other place Ten Pulandai, is probably Pulankurichi, a
village adjacent to Sevur, where a historic inscription
has been found. These identifications should be taken as
tentative, in which case Arrangudi, Sevur and Pulandai
being nearby places, should be taken to represent the
same battle which seems to have been continuously fought
between the Chera and the Pandya. The
presence of Sevur near Ponnamaravati need not surprise
us. The rulers of the Kodumbalur region were called
Konattar, and that they were ruling the Kongu country is
also known. In the recently discovered inscription of
Pulankuruchi, Konganadu is mentioned(40) with Pandinadu.
Among the opponents of Pandya Arikesari, referred to in
the Pandikkovai, is a Vennattan. The inscription from
Pulankurichi, refers to a Vennattan. So in all
likelihood, the Chera fought with Pandya Arikesari at
Sevur which seems to have occupied a strategic position
through the centuries. It would show that the Chera
power was felt upto Sevur in Ramand district.
Pandikkovai credits the Pandya with victories over
Musirri and the Konganadu. Whether the Pandya"s claim of
victory over the Kongu country and through the Palghat
gap reached Musiris in the west coast is doubtful. But
the Chera was not to be easily subdued. From the south,
he seems to have captured the entire south Pandi nadu,
upto Thirunelveli. So the Pandya has to fight in the
south and one of the fiercest battle was at Nelveli (a
modern Thirunelveli) where the Pandya emerged
victorious. The fight continued. The places where he
defeated the Chera, specifically mentioned are, Kadayal
(identical with Kadaiyam) Kottaru (modern Nagarkoil)
Kanyakumari, and Vilinjam. This account of Pandikkovai,
is corroborated by the copper plate charters. The
Velvikkudi grants of Nedunjadaiyan and both the
Sinnamnur grants make specific references to Arikesari"s
severe fight with the Chera. Unfortunately who this
powerful Chera was we do not know. It is possible he was
called "Vilveli" as mentioned in the Velvikkudi
grant.(41) Though the Pandya claims victory, the extent
of the Chera kingdom was something stupendous He was
ruling the Kongu country, the entire south west coast
(Travancore state) and the whole of the South Pandinadu,
from Kanyakumari to Thirunelveli. Properly speaking he
should be termed the first imperial Chera king known to
history. This Chera is undoubtedly the founder of the
imperial Chera dynasty. He should have ruled between
650-700 A.D. The Pallaval contemporaries at that period
were Narasimha I, Mahendra II and Paramesvara I.
Interestingly Narasimha-I also states that he conquered
Kerala several times. According to the Kuram grant,
Narasimha I defeated the Chola, Kerala, Kalabhra and
Pandya several times.(42) That the Cheras were in the
Karur region, near in the Kaveri delta is attested by
another source. "Pulikesin II, driving the Pallava
behind the forts of Kanchi, reached as far south as the
Kaveri river, and there caused prosperity to the Chola,
Kerala and Pandya", says his Aihole inscription.(43)
This also leaves no doubt that the Keralas had their
seat of power near the Kaveri in Karur. The references
in the epigraphs to the Pallavas, Chalukyas, and Pandyas
show that the Chera still ruled from near the Kaveri
(with Karur - Vanci as the capital) though they had
brought the entire Travancore State under their sway in
the 7th century A.D.
VASCILLATION
In the 8th century A.D., the Chera is
seen vascillating between Karur in Tiruchy district and
Trivandrum on the west coast. The copper plates of the
Pallavas give us a glimpse about their field of action.
In the reign of Pandya Parantaka Nedumjadaiyan, the
Chera is still in the Karur region as a close ally of
the Pallava. Nedumjadaiyan defeated the Atiya, at first,
at Ayiraveli Aiyilur, and pursued him to Pugalur and
vanquished him. The Pallava and Kerala came to help the
Atiya, but were also defeated. The Pandya further
defeated the western Kongu ruler, according to the
Srivaramangalam plates." That this war between Kerala
and Pallava on the one hand and the Pandya on the other,
took place at Karur is indicated by Dalavaypuram plates
which specifically say Parantaka defeated the Kadava
(Pallava)(45) at Karur. But the Vaishnava saint
Thirunmangai Alvar, states that the Pallava won a
victory over the Pandya at Karur.(46). This would
indicate that the Karur battle was indecisive.
But a point of interest here is that the
region around Vilinjam, seems to have slipped out of the
hand of the Chera and was controlled by the Ay Vel chief.
Pandya Parantaka states in his Srivaramangalam plates, that
he defeated the Vel chief at Vilinjam.(47) (This chief was
probably an ancestor of Karunan who came to the throne in
the 9th century). Within a short period, the Chera reganed
again the Vilinjam area. Pandya Parantaka"s son, Sri Mara
Srivallabha, claims to have killed the Chera in a battle at
Vilinjam.(48)
So in the middle of the 9th Century the
Cheras was vascillataing between Karur and Vilinjam.
Around 850 to 900 the Vilinjam region was under the
control of the Ay chiefs Karunan Tadakkan and
Aviyalantadakkan.
KULASEKHARA AND CHERAMAN PERUMAL
Before we come to the great age of the
Kulasekharas, we have to discuss two eminent Chera rulers.
One is the Saivite Saint Cheraman Perumal and the other is
the Vaishnavite Saint Kulasekhara. The date of these two
Chera rules is far from settled but in all likelihood they
lived in the 8th century A.D. Pandit. M. Raghava Iyangar
holds the view that these two rulers were successive
monarchs and considers that Cheraman succeeded
Kulasekhara.(49) Kulasekhara became one of
the celebrated Alvars and his poems came to be called
the Perumal Thirumoli. He was a great devotee of Rama.
In his poems he calls himself, Kongar Koman (the ruler
of Kongu) with his capital at Kollingar, identified with
a village at the foot of Kolli hills in the Kongu
country. M. Raghava Iyangar goes to the extent of
identifying Kollinagar with Karur in Trichy district
(the identification seems to us doubtful) and suggests
that with Karur as his Capital, he ruled up to the west
coast, including Kondungolur. The "Divya
suri carita," of Garudavahana Pandita,(50) the earliest
work to give a biographical sketch of the Alwars,
specifically mentions that Kulasekhara was ruling in the
west coast, near Kozikkodu. A point of interest is that
Kulasekhara mentions in his own work that he was the
Lord of Kolli, Kudal, koli and Kongu. Koli is another
name for the city of Uraiyur, the capital of the Cholas.
In he 8th century A.D., there was no Chola worth the
name and Uraiyur ws changing hands frequently between
the Pandyas and the Pallavas. We have seen that the
Cheras were still vascillating between Karur near Trichy
and Kodungolur in the west during that period. It is
possible that Kulasekhara was holding (Uraiyur) Koli,
probably as an ally or subordinate of the Pallavas. But
his claim to have ruled over Kudal i.e. Madurai, must be
considered more rhetorical than real. It is not unlikely
that his capital was situated at the west coast though
he had the Kongu under his control and finally settled
in Srirangam (near Koli, the capital of the Cholas)
renouncing the kingdom. H. sarkar seems to accept the
suggestion that this Kulasekhara was the founder of the
second Chera dynasty.(51) The other
Chera ruler is Cheraman Perumal, a contemporary of the
Saivite Saint Sunddaramurti. Sekkilar, the author of
Periya Puranam clearly locates his capital at
Thiruvanjaikkalam in the coast(52) and that his power
seems to have confined to the west coast only with even
the Kongu country falling outside his domains. Cheraman
seems to have lived on friendly terms with the other
South Indian rulers and traveled through the Pallava,
Chola and Pandya cuntries. He is identified with
Rajasekhara, the successor of Kulasekhara.(53) We are
not sure whether this identification could be sustained.
The probability of Cheraman Perumal, being a ruler of an
earlier period, as a contemporary of Pallava Rajasimha
is not ruled out.
However the study shows that the Chera
power was active in the "Kongu-Karur" region and that
their currency should have been very much in circulation
in the territory. The point of interest is the currency
that was prevalent in the Chera country in the 7th and
8th century A.D. No coin that could be attributed to the
Cheras of this age has been identified. Rajasekhara, who
ascended the throne in circa, 820 A.D. stipulated a fine
of one hundred "dinaras" on those who hindered the
Sribali ceremony.(54) Commenting on this, H. Sarkar
holds that it is an anachronism to consider the "dinara"
as Roman. He suggests that it must have been the Arab
gold currency(55). He also suggests that the word
dirammam appearing in some Tamil inscriptions should be
considered a corruption of dinara.(56) Dirammam is a
Tamil form of Drachma. Mr. Chattopadhyaya has shown that
the currency named "Dinara" was in circulation even in
4th century A.D. at Nagarjunakonda, much earlier to the
Arab currency.(57) In all likelihood the Dinara of
Rajasekhara"s epigraph should be taken to refer to Roman
currency. However it is difficult to say whether it was
a gold coin or silver coin, for the word dinarai seems
to have been used to denote coins of both the
metals.(58)
VIRA KERALA
A coin of the Chera that has attracted
great discussion is the silver coin bearing the legend
"Vira Kerala".(59) Recently a hoard of this coin was
found in Chingleput district. Quite a number of them
seems to have been found but only a few could be
recovered. I have examined these coins closely. On one
side there is the legend Sri Virakeralasya and a figure
resembling what has been identified as crocodile. The
figure is clearly not a crocodile, but only a floral
design. The reverse has also a Nagari legend and has
been rightly read as "Srri Gandarankusasya" by N.
Lakshminarayana Rao.(60) The coin has been discussed by
both Chattopadhyaya and Vidya Prakash in recent
times.(61) Lakshminarayana Rao assigns it to Vira kerala
who ascended the throne around 1127 A.D. Chattopadhyaya
leaves the question of identity open. The find off a
hoard of this coin in Chingleput district in Northern
part of Tamilnadu, would show that this currency was
widely used throughout Tamilnadu. The coin is found in
abundance in the collection of private coin collectors
though the exact provenance of their occurrence, is not
certain but is sufficient to show, that the currency had
great circulation. About the identity of
the rulers who issued this coin, all scholas have held
hat the earliest Vira Kerala who figures in epigraph,
occurs in the reign of Rajadhi Raja Chola I in 1046
A.D.(62) But recently an inscription copied by the
Tamilnadu State Archaeology Department of Cholavandan,
near Madurai refers to a Virakerala in an inscription of
Rajaraja I.
In the Kongu region, there were a succession
of rulers with the name Vira Kerala. Some of them also bore
the name Kandan. It has been shown recently that they were
the Kalabhras of the epigraphs.(63) Their inscriptions are
found in the Kongu country. The name Gandarankusasya
occurring on the reverse may be taken to refer to one such
Kanda, who ruled in the 10th century. The
word need not be taken to mean "goad to the heroes". It
may be taken to mean "Gandara who was an ankusa". Such
an expression is plausible. We have to titles Vama, and
Vamankusa for the same ruler at Mamallapuram.(64) The
absence of any dynastic emblem might also suggest that
the coin was issued by a Kongu Chera ruler, who belonged
to the Kalabhra dynasty.
It must be admitted that not much coins
have come to light which could be attributed to the
mediaeval Cheras.
LATER CHERA COINS
The coins of the Later Cheras could now
be identified with an amount of certainty. Quite a
number of these coins were included in the list of
Pandyan coins by earlier writers. I have shown that
these were issued by the later Cheras.(65) But before
these coins are taken up for discussion, the coins
generally attributed to the Cheras may be examined.
Sri. Vidya Prakash, discusses the Chera
coins under three categories (1) The coins of Virakerala
(2) The gold and copper coinst found in Kongu desa,
bearing on the obverse an elephant and on the reverse a
scroll work and (3) the copper coins of uniform variety
with minor deviations, carrying on the one side a device
identified with a "vase on a stand" and on the obverse
"elephant-bow-sword" device.(66)
The coin of Virakerala has already been
discussed. The second variety with elephant on the
obverse and a scroll on the reverse were the issues of
the Gangas of Talakkadu will be discussed in the
sequence. But the third variety is found in large
numbers and judging from their size and shape, they
certainly seems to be late mediaeval coins. The obverse
remains constant in the series. Illustrating these coins
Elliot Writers; "Nos. 121-127. The seven
following characteristic copper coins are difficult to
describe. They all have on the reverse the same symbol
which may be compared to an altar of drum shaped object.
The obverse has generally a bow and one or more five
pointed posts or standards, in one instance together
with an elephant, in others weapon like a sacrifical
bill or axe".(67) Regarding this design, Vidya Prakash
has the following observation; "The
reverse design has got several variations. Bow is
invariably present in all the cases. The other symbol
which is also present in all the varieties is, according
to our observations a sword super-imposed by a cross.
The pointed end is some-times below and sometimes above.
Krishna"s identification of this symbol as a burning
lamp does not appear to be corrected. Between the bow
and the sword the symbols vary".(68) The
uniform symbol on all these coins is what seems to be an
altar, flanked by lamp on stand. Over the altar are seen
circular pellet like objects, probably representing
coins or the globular Kalanju. Whether this has any
reference to some Vedic sacrifice, symbolic of Hiranya
garbha or Bahusuvarna sacrifice, is difficult to say at
present. But the symbol on the other
side can be more satisfactorily explained. That the bow
is the dynastic emblem of the Cheras is well known. The
elephant is equally associated with the Cheras has also
been explained earlier. The other symbol described as
five pointed post by Elliot and "a sword with a
superimposed cross" by Vidya Prakash,(69) is in fact a
representation of palmyra tree. In early Tamil
literature the palmyra is distinctly associated with the
Cheras. The Chera used to wear palmyra flower as his
emblem. So it is clear that the emblem under discussion
is a palmyra tree. In some instances Vidya Prakash seems
to have photographed the coins upside down (as in case
of pl. vii-II) and what is described as a daggar with
point down, words, is infact a lamp on stand found on
most of South Indian coins. The Huzur
Plates refer to Kalanju which is used both in the sense
of weight and gold currency. That it is weight when it
refers to nine Kalanju of tamrind. But it is coin when
it refers to the endowment of 18 Kalanju of gold as
raksha bhogam. While referring to this gold, it states
Sudum Uraiyum Varuvadu i.e. probably refring to its
standad tested both by heating and rubbing. It is also
clear from this record that out of the 18 Kalanju of
gold, the Melsanti priest got 15 kanam and the kilsanti
(attendent priest) 15 kanam, the rest 15 kalanju, being
used for other services. This makes it clear that 30
kanam, equaled three kalanju, each kalanju being equal
to 10 kanam.(70) Incidentally it is also learnt that
kanam was also used in the sense of a weight - ten kanam
sandal and ten kanam - Ahil etc.(71) The same charter
also refers to ten kanams of gold 2 � kanam etc. which
shows that kanams were in the denomination of 1, 2 �, 5
and 10. A point of interest is that if one failed to
measure for a day the stipulated quantity, he should pay
double the measures. For two days default, the fine
remained the same but for the third day, a fine of ten
kanam was imposed. For more than three days upto 18
days, he should pay three kalanju as fine. For 18 days
and more the fine was a high as six kalanju.(72)
A general study of the coinage of Kerala, shows that
from 9th to 11th Century A.D., the main currency was
gold kalanju and gold kanam. The occurrence of the
currency dinar in an incription of Rajasekhara, is a
stray instance, showing that those who had the gold
dinara could use them also as a currency but the local
currency was kalanju and kanam.
In the reign of the ruler, Indu Kodai, 961
A.D., kanam was in use 2 � kanam being prescribed as a fine
for a day"s default.(73) Five years later in the same reign
of Indu Kodai, an endowment of ten kalanju was gifted for
worship.(74) An inscription of the same Century A.D., thirty
six kalanju of gold as equal to old coin (Palam kasu). It
shows that the currency kasu was in circulatin earlier and
was in all probability a gold coin. What this Palam kasu,
meant, we know nothing.
Another inscription of the 10th Century,
dated in the reign of Kerala Kesari Perumal, refers to
the payment of wages to various servants as follows.
10 kanam daily to Perumudiyan. 10 kanam
daily to the worshipping priest. 10 kanam daily to the
person bringing fire wood 10 kanam daily to the Cook. 5
kanam each to those husking paddy, cleaning the dining
place and cleaning the vessels. A defaulter was expected
to pay a fine of 12 kalanju of Pon.(75)
Another inscription, dated around 1000 A.D., in the
reign of Bhaskara Ravivarman, refers to 120 kalanju of
gold inclusive of Palam kasu (old kasu) which yielded an
interest of 10%(76) However a 11th
Century inscription, refers to the endowment of ten
kalanju of gold for one perpetual lamp, and a gift of 33
Ilakkasu, in the hands of the Village assembly of
Mincirai.(77) Probably 33 Ilakkasu was equal to 10
kalanju. However it is clear that kalanju, kanam, kasu
and Ilakkasu were in circulation in 10th-11th century
A.D. What however one does not find mention is the
currency Accu, or Panam in this period.
Most of the Chola records, found in South Travancore,
particularly after the conquest of the region by Raja
Raja I, in 11th century, refers to the transactions
either in terms of lands or sheep or cows, and rarely in
terms of currency and whether currency is referred to it
is either in terms of Kalanju or Kasu.
The terms kalanju and kanam slowly
disappear from records of later age, though they seem to
have continued upto the 13th century A.D. An
interestsing epigraph of 13th century relates to certain
stipulation and social conduct. It states that a Sudra
should be fined 12 kanam if he aims an arrow at a
Brahmin, six kalanju if a Sudra abuses another Sudra,
and if a Sudra murders another Sudra 12 kalanju gold
should be imposed". On a comparative study of Dharma
sastra, the editor states "According to some
authorities, a kanam is equal to 3 kalanju and according
to some epigraphs, it appears that it is of lesser
weight than kalanju".(78) It is worthy of note that
according to Kautilya that if the persons abused happen
to be of superior rank the amount of fine should be
doubled and if of lower rank should be halved(79) In
both the instances the editors equation of kalanju with
kanam seems to be wrong. If the Dharmasastra or Artha
Sastra rules are applied, kalanju in this record would
be equal to one kanam. But we have seen earlier, that
one kalanju equaled to 10 kanams from 9th to 11th
century A.D. It is not known whether the value of
kalanju depreciated in 13th century or the term kalanju
and kanams were used as synonyms. From
the records of the 12th century A.D., we find the word
accu being prominently mentioned. The Mitranandapuram
records of 12th century refers to 30 Anai Accu (elephant
coin). It refers to 600 Parai of paddy which yielded an
annual interest of 60 Parai, amounting to 10%, interest.
Similarly 30 Anai Accus were endowed yielding 72 Parai
paddy. If we calculate at the rate of 10% interest, one
Accu fetched 24 Parai of paddy. The Minchiraimattam
plates of 13th century A.D., refers to a gift of several
Accus by various individuals. An inscription from
Sivagairi, refers to a Brahmin lady, endowing three
Salakai and 10 Accu.(80) The editor takes I as three
Salaka and ten accu.
The term accu is evidently a reference to a
dye-struck coin. The term Anai Accu clearly shows that the
coin bore on it a figure of elephant. Bu it is not clear
whether this accu was a gold coin or copper coin. We have
some gold coins with the figure of an elephant on one side
and a scroll device on the reverse. But this coin we
consider to be an issue of the Gangas of Talakkadu.
Among the copper coins we may distinguish two types of
coins bearing the figure of elephant. One type has an
elephant on the obverse and a Tamil legend "Kulasekhara"
over two fish and a cendu. Illustrated as coin no. 49a.
by T. Desikachari, it has been included among the Pandya
coins. But in view of the fact elephant occupies the
whole of obverse side and the word Kulasekhara is placed
over the Pandyan symbol, it seems to us that the coin
was an issue of a Chera who conquered the Pandya
country. It seems to us that this was an issue of
Ravivarman Kulasekhara who overran the Pandya and other
countries upto Madras in the beginning of 14th century
A.D. The other coin baring elephant is
the one which bears "Bow-Elephant-Palmyra tree", on one
side, found in large numbers and assigned to the Kongu
Cheras. It is not known to which of these coins the term
Anai Accu of the inscription refers. But judging from
the records it seems that the value of the Accu was very
high and that it should have been a gold coin. We have
shown that endowments of 30 accus, 10 accus and even 3
accus, recorded in inscriptions suggest their
denominational value to be high. If so the point of
interest is whether the Cheras of the Northern
Travancore, allowed the Ganga coins to circulate in
their region and probably also minted themselves such
coins. In this case we may take the term Anai Accu as
referring to the gold coin with elephant on one side and
scroll work on the reverse. Some
inscriptions refer to Salaka and Accu. Inscription No.
60 from Sivagiri, refers to three Salaka and ten accu.
Another inscription refers to three Salaka and three
accu. In some epigraphs, a currency called Palam Salaka
is also refered to. That out surmise,
accu stands for "gold coin in confirmed by an
inscription from Suchindram in Kanyakumari district.
Dated in Kollam year 420 (1225 A.D.) it records the
endowments of ten accu for burning one perpetual lamp
and the accu is mentioned as Puduppon Accu i.e. new gold
accu. Around 1224 A.D., ten accus were deposited for one
perpetual lamp. It indicates between 1225 and 1245, a
new gold accu has been issued. The ruler of Venad,
during this period was Ravi Kerala Varma
(1215-1240).(81) This ruler took great interest in the
welfare of the common people and directed attention to
strengthen the economy by a realistic policy of
remitting taxes in case of failure of crops.(82) It is
likely this ruler issued the new gold coin called
Puduppon Accu mentioned in inscription. We have
mentioned that the Anai Accu, used in Kerala, was
probably adopted from the Kongu country around 1100 A.D.
A certain Vira Rajendra Chola was the most powerful
ruler of the Kongu country between 1207 and 1252. He
styled himself the ruler of both the Konggus and his
rule extended to a part of Trichy and Madurai districts.
He had a long and effective rule and we find the name of
the currency Anai Accu is his records. So the Anai Accu
in the South Kerala record were in all probability the
Kongu coins which have gained currency through North
Kerala Kingdom of Mahodayapuram.
VENAD CHERAS
From about the beginning of 12th
century, the South Kerala was under Venad rulers who
asserted their independence. They styled themselves as
"Ciraivay Mutta Thiruvadi", etc. A number of illustrious
rulers like Kodai Kerala Varma, Udaya Martanda
Varma,Vira Rama Kerala Varma,Ravi Kerala Varma, and
others had useful rule. But the greatest of the family
was Ravivarman Kulasekhara (1299-1314). He married a
daughter of the Pandya ruler Maravarman Kulasekhara, and
remained a feudatory of the Pandya till his death in
1310. At the death of the Pandya Maravarman Kulasekhara,
he staked his claim to the Pandya throne and started
issuing records as an independent sovereign. This period
witnessed the incursion of Malikkaffur and resulted in
confusion. Ravivarman Kulasekhara was a master
politician. He quickly overran the southern country and
brought the entire south, from Kanyakumari to Madras,
under his banner. His inscription is found in
Puntamalli, a suburb of Madras and all over Tamilnadu.
"In his role as the conqueror, Ravi Varman shoot across
the political horizon of South India, like a fashing
meteor".(83) His contribution to literature and religion
are well remembered. Brisk trade and commercial activity
and contact with outside worlds like China are well
known. It is in this connection, a few
coins of the period deserve to be studied. Three or four
types of coins, bearing the name Kulasekhara assignable
to 13-14th centuries A. D. on paleographical grounds,
are known. (I) They are. A coin with a
standing King on the obverse and the Tamil legend
"Kulasekhara" over two fish and a sceptre in the
reverse. It is listed as No. 49, under the Pandya coins
by Sir. T. Desikachari. Listed as No. 71 by T.
Desikachari, it has the standing King on the obverse and
the Tamil legend Kulasekhara, beneath an umbrella and
chouris. Listed as 49a by T. Desikachari. Obverse
elephant passant to the left with emblems or characters
above which cannot be deciphered. Reverse. Above two
fishes separated by a sceptre is the Tamil legend
Kulasekhara. Standing figure on the obverse and seated
figure on the reverse with the Tamil legend "Kula"
beneath the arm. The third coin
mentioned above, seems to us a coin of Ravivarman
Kulasekhara. The first two coins were probably issued by
Maravarman Kulasekhara pandya under whom Ravivarman
remained a feudatory first. These coins were under
circulation, when Ravivarman Kulasekhara, conquered the
Pandya country and became an absolute monarch. Probably
to commemorate this conquest he issued the coin with his
crest elephant on the obverse and the name Kulasekhara
over the Pandya crest. The importance given to elephant
would justify our assumptions. I have
assigned a few other coins, (hitherto listed under
Pandya coins) to the Chera rulers of South Kerala. These
coins bear names like Kaliyugaraman, Bhutalaviram,
Cherakularaman and Bhaskara. These range from 14th to
17th century A.D.
CHANGE IN CURRENCY
Before we discuss these coins, a great
change in the currency system seems to have taken place
which it is necessary to understand. The kalanju has
almost disappeared and the accu which replaced it slowly
begin to lose its popularity and we find the term "Panam
appearing prominently from the end of 13th century A.D.
and in 14-16th century it seems to have become too
popular. This has to be studied in the overall context
of South Indian currency. However in Kerala, it is the
dominant currency mentioned in records.
LATER CHERA COINS
Now the identification of some of the
later Chera coins an be taken up. T. Desikachari, has
illustrated coins with the name Kaliyugaraman and
Bhutalaviran. In the coin bearing the name Kaliyugaraman
in Tamil characters of about 15th century A.D. are found
two foot impressions over what seems to be a bow. The
feet are topped by a parasol and a chank. This coin has
been included under the list of Pandya coins. Similarly
there is another coin bearing the name "Cherakularaman"
on one side and a standing figure on the other.
Commenting on these coins, Desikachari remarks;
"Kaliyugaraman and Cherakularaman point
possibly to the same facts as those recorded in the
Srirangam inscriptions or to a second invasion of Ceylon by
the allies of the Pandyas and Cheras. But a Maravarman
Thirunelveli Perumal Vira Pandya has inscriptions of his in
the Ramnad and Thirunelveli districts and the lithic record
in later districts mentions coins known as Kaliyugaraman.
The coins bearing the legend have therefore to be attributed
to one of the later Pandyas who probably ruled in the 15th
century."(84) That the Pandyan crest was
fish is well known. In the 12th to 14th century, Pandya
records and coins, two fish and a sceptre are found a
their crest. Bu in the coins under discussion no fish is
found. The Kaliyugaraman coin bears two foot impression
called Vishnu Pada. Further these coins have been mostly
found in Thirunelveli, Kanyakumari and south Kerala.
In the year 1487 A.D., 400 Kaliyugaraman
Panam were deposited in the treasury of Puravaseri in
Kanyakumari district. In the same region, in a village
called Parakkai, 400 anradu Valangum Nenmeli Kaliyugaraman
Panam" were gifted for burning a perpetual lamp in the year
1509 A.D. Another record from the same village, dated in
1689 refers to the same Kaliyugaraman Panam. This coin has
remained a valid ender from 1487 to 1689 for over 200 years.
Obviously this coin in circulation in the extreme south of
India, was an issue of the Chera rulers of Venad. The
Travancore and rulers were called Thiruvadis, (Sripada) and
their country itself was called "Thiruvadi Rajya". They were
great devotees of Lord Anantapadmanabha. So the presense of
foot prints, called Vishnu Pada, were their symbols and
there could be no doubt that these coins with the Vishny
Pada, and the name Kaliyugaraman were the issues of Chera
rulers. Since it appears in the 15th century records, it
should have been issued in the 15th century. Who this Chera,
Kaliyugaraman was needs further study.
In this connection, Elliot has left an
interesting note on a coin of Kerala. "They as well as
the Rasi, have long given place to more modern currency.
The oldest form of which is the "Kali" properly called
"Kali Yugen Rajen Panam" and it is known that the name
or money of the "Kali Yuga" at one time current over the
whole of Kerala. Of these there are two varieties
bearing a slight resemblance to the Rasi. One of these
is said to have been issued by the Kolathanadraja". This
view is repeated by Sreedhara Menon in his survey of
Kerala history.(85) Kali or Kaliyugara"en Panam, which
is mentioned as late as 1689 refers to this coin. As it
was in circulation for over two hundred years, its name
has survived till the days of Elliot.
The coins bearing the legend "Chera Kularaman" similarly
should be considered an issue of Chera kings and not
Pandya as held by other scholars.
There are two types of Butlavira coins
illustrated by T. Desikachari as No. 30, 31, The coin
No. 30 has a standing figure in regal robes, and on the
reverse seated figure with Tamil legend to its left
Butala and two fishes below. The
presence of fish, the Pandyan crest would indicate it is
clearly a Pandya coin. But the other coin similar to the
above except the fish crest, but bearing the name
"Butalavira" might have been issued by the Chera rulers
of South Kerala, who invariably assumed the title
Butalavira. An inscription dated 1532, from Vadaseri in
Kanyakumari district, refers to the ruler as
"Jayatunganattu Sankaranarayana, Venrumankonda
Butalavira Srivira Udayamartandavarman, Thiruppappurr
Mutta Thiruvadi. Another ruler Ravivarman, of the same
family, ruling in 1536 A.D. is also given the title
"Butalavira". It is not unlikely that following the
footsteps of the Pandyas, the Chera rulers of 15th &
16th century also issued the coins and No. 31 of
Desikachari may be considered an issue of the Cheras.
The coin No. 27 of Desikachari also
listed under Pandyas, clearly reads as "Baskara.
The legend is not found in the list of
Pandyas but is found for many Kerala rulers particularly in
the 11th century A.D. However the Paleography of the script
seems to be around 14-15th century and cannot be assigned to
11th century. The identification of the king who issued the
coin must remain open for the present.
Foot Notes
|
1.
|
Nilakanta Sastri, Age of the Nandas and Mauryas,
p. 43
|
|
2.
|
Seta Aiyar K. G. Cera kings of the Sangam
period, p. 132
|
|
3.
|
Ibid
|
|
4.
|
Sarkar. H. An arachitectural Survey of Temples
of Kerala p. 11
|
|
5.
|
Nilakanta Sastri K. A. Foreign Notices of South
India
|
|
6.
|
Radha Kumud Mookerji, Asoka p. 132
|
|
7.
|
Ibid p. 132 F.N.
|
|
8.
|
Sarkar H. Ibid p. 10
|
|
9.
|
Nagaswamy R. A. bilingual Coin of Satavahana in
"Seminar on Inscriptions" Madras 1968; also see,
"A bilingual Coin of Vasittiputra Sia Sri
Pulamavi", in the Andhra Pradesh Journal of
Archaeology, vol. 1, no 2 pp. 105-108.
|
|
10.
|
Sesha Aiyar, K.G. "Chera Kings of the Sangam
Period" p. 517.
|
|
11.
|
Nilakanta Sastri, K.A., A comprehensive history
of India, p. 123
|
|
12.
|
Mahadevan I. Corpus of he Tamil Brahmi
inscription, "Seminar on Inscriptions" p. 56.
Also proceedings of IInd International
conference of Tamil studies p. 73.103
|
|
13.
|
Ibid p. 67.
|
|
14.
|
Sesha Aiyar, K.G. Cera Kings, p. 9 (P.L. Gupta
places the rise of the Cheras to 4th century
A.D. Early coins from Kerala 1965, pp. 11. This
is quite off the mark).
|
|
15.
|
Ibid p. 8
|
|
16.
|
Padirrupattu, Ed. U. V. Swaminatha Iyer, Madras
1957, p. 36
|
|
17.
|
Sesha Aiyar, K.G. Cera Kings p. 15
|
|
18.
|
Conra: Nilakanta Sastri K.A., The Pandian
Kingdom Madras, 1972, p. 84 "The Aivar Malai
record of A.D. 870, records the renewal of the
images of Parsva Bhatarar and the Yakshis at
Thiru Ayiraimalai, by one Santivira Kuravar".
Epigraphical records prove that the present
Aivar Malai near Palani is the Aiyirai malai of
the Sangam literature and that was in the
territory of the Cheras in the Sangam age.
|
|
19.
|
Sesha Aiyar, K.G. Cera Kings. P. 18. This
identification of Tagadur, with a place in
Mysore, is obviously wrong. There are several
inscriptions attesting to the identity of
Tagadur with Dharmapuri, now the headquarters of
the district of the same name.
|
|
20.
|
Padirrupattu-4th decud, Ibid.
|
|
21.
|
Ibid -5th decad. Also Nilakanta Sastri K.A.,
Comprehensive history of India-p. 522-523.
|
|
22.
|
Nilakanta Sastri K.A. A history of South
India-Madras 1977. p. 139. Also Agam, verse-149.
|
|
23.
|
Sesha Aiyar, K.G. Cera Kings p. 30.
|
|
24.
|
Ibid - p. 56.
|
|
25.
|
Mahadevan I. Proceedings of the IInd
International conference of Tamil Studies, p.
95.
|
|
26.
|
Nilakanta Sastri K.A., Comprehensive History of
India p. 565
|
|
27.
|
Sesha Aiyar K.G., Cera Kings p. 91.
|
|
28.
|
Ibid - p. 56.
|
|
29.
|
Gupta P.L., Early coins from Kerala, 1965, p. 66
|
|
30.
|
Ancient India II, pp. 24-25
|
|
31.
|
Gupta P. L. Ibid p. 64
|
|
32.
|
Subramaniam N. Sangam Polity p. 214 (Ka-weight;
Tolkappiyam Tohaimarabu. Kanam-gold coin
�����Ģ¡¢� �� ���� ������ Manimekhalai p.
16:10. Subramaniam holds Kanam means a small
gold coin.
|
|
33.
|
Chattopadhyaya B Coins and Currency sysem in
South India, Delhi, 1977, p. 62.
|
|
34.
|
Codrington, Ceylon coins and currency pp. 19-20
|
|
35.
|
Desikachari T. South Indian Coins, 1933, p. 157.
|
|
36.
|
Paripadal Ed. U. V. Swaminatha Iyer, Madras p.
239.
|
|
37.
|
Padirrupattu, Ibid verse No. 11, line 19.
|
|
38.
|
Desikachari T. Ibid pl. 1, Nos. 9, 10, 11, 12 &
13.
|
|
39.
|
Pandikkovai, Ed. V. Duraiswamy. Madras, 1957.
|
|
40.
|
Nagaswamy R. Studies in Ancient Tamil Law
Society Madras 1978, pp. 9, 10
|
|
41.
|
The Tamil Nadu State Arcaheological Department
has recently discovered this epigraph at
Pulankuruohi village (near Ponnamaravati) in
Ramnad district.
|
|
42.
|
41 Nagaswamy R. Pandya Arikesari and
Pandikkovai, Prof. K.A.N. Sastri Felicitation
Volume ,1971 pp. 144-155.
|
|
43.
|
South Indian Inscriptions Vol. I pp. 144-155
|
|
44.
|
Epigraphica Indica, Vol. VI. pp 6-11. Also
Mahalingam t.v., Kanchipuram in Early South
Indian History, p. 81
|
|
45.
|
Indian Antiquary Vol. No. XXII 1893. Also Pandya
Copper Plates ten (Tamil), Madras 1967, pp.
49-64.
|
|
46.
|
Ten Pandya copper plates (Tamil) pp. 83-123.
|
|
47.
|
Nagaswamy R. Studies in Ancient Tamil Law and
Society pp. 18-19.
|
|
48.
|
Ten pandya copper plates pp. 39
|
|
49.
|
Ibid-p. 104 Ţ�� Ţ����� ŢƢ��� Ţ�� �������.
(��š� ��� ����� �â. 105).
|
|
50.
|
Raghava Iyengar M. Alvarkal Kala Varalaru pp.
159-170
|
|
51.
|
Venkatachari K. A. K., Divya Suri Caritam,
Bombay-1978 5-1 to 26
|
|
52.
|
Sarkar H. An Architectural Survey of Temples of
Kerala pp. 20-21
|
|
53.
|
Periya Puranam, 43, Kalarirrarivar Puranam
|
|
54.
|
Raghava Iyengar - Ibid
|
|
55.
|
Travancore Archaeological Series Vol. II p. 9
|
|
56.
|
Sarkar H.-Ibid p. 107
|
|
57.
|
Ibid-p. Foot-notes
|
|
58.
|
Chattopadhyaya B. Ibid p. 107
|
|
59.
|
Ibid-p. 108/
|
|
60.
|
Ibid-pp. 66-69 pl. VII-332
|
|
61.
|
Lakshmi Narayana Rao N. Journal of the
Numismatic Society of India-IX pp. 100
|
|
62.
|
Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India p. 100-102
|
|
63.
|
S.I.I. 111 p. 56
|
|
64.
|
Natana Kasinathan "Kalabras Identified", in
South Indian Studies II, Madras, 1979 pp.
180-185
|
|
65.
|
S.I.I. vol. I
|
|
66.
|
Nagaswamy R. Kalvettu
|
|
67.
|
Vidya Prakash Coinage of South India p. 102
|
|
68.
|
Walter Elliot, Coins of Southern India-p. 152 F.
|
|
69.
|
Vidya Prakash Ibid p. 100
|
|
70.
|
Ibid p. 100
|
|
71.
|
Travancore Archaeological Series p. 146
|
|
72.
|
Travancore Achaeological Series II pt. III p.
195
|
|
73.
|
Ibid p. 192
|
|
74.
|
T.A.S. III 36
|
|
75.
|
T.A.S. III 166
|
|
76.
|
T.A.S. III 46
|
|
77.
|
T.A.S. III 42
|
|
78.
|
T.A.S. III pt. I, 12
|
|
79.
|
T.A.S. III p. 192
|
|
80.
|
Ibid
|
|
81.
|
Ibid p. 217
|
|
82.
|
Sreedhara Menon K. A Survey of Kerala History,
p. 163
|
|
83.
|
Ibid p. 163
|
|
84.
|
Ibid p. 165-166
|
|
85.
|
Desikachari T. South Indian coins p. 163
|
|
86.
|
Sreedhara Menon K. Ibid 36
|
|
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|
