Rev. James Cartman, OBE, M.A., B.D., M.Th.
from Hinduism in Ceylon, 1957
Many books on Caste conveniently draw
up a four-fold division, namely:
| 1. The Brahmans |
- Priests (although the Brahmans
are generally described as priests, many of them in
India are not priests at all and never intend to
be.) |
| 2. The
Kshatriyas. |
Soldiers or Nobles |
| 3. The Vaisyas |
Traders |
| 4. The Sudras |
Cultivators. |
Those who do not fall into
these four divisions are commonly described. as
Harijans or Outcastes. This division, however, is an
inadequate description of caste in Ceylon, for by it
most of the Hindus in the Island would be simply
classified as Sudras and Outcastes. Such a simple
classification will not suffice. It is, indeed,
necessary to give two lists of classification, as there
are marked differences between the Ceylon Tamils and
the South Indian Tamils.
In each list, alongside
the name of the caste, is given the hereditary
occupation associated with it, though today many
individual members of these castes are not actively
engaged in that particular occupation. The first list
is of Ceylon Tamils. There are two broad divisions, the
clean and the unclean castes, and in each division the
order given is an indication of the status ascribed to
the various castes.
List 1 - Ceylon Tamils
(Hindus)
| Caste |
Hereditary Occupation |
| A. The
Clean Castes |
| 1. Brahman |
Priest |
| 2. Vellala |
Cultivator |
| Chetty Vellala |
Cultivator & Trader |
| 3. Karaiyar |
Fishers |
| Muchavar |
Fishers |
| 4. Koviyar |
Cooks (domestic servants) to
Vellalas |
| 5.The Panchalas |
Craftsmen |
| a. Thattar |
Goldsmiths |
| b. Collar |
Ironsmiths |
| c. Thachchar |
Carpenters |
| d. Sitpar |
Masons |
| e.Kammalar |
Brass workers |
| Kannar |
Brass workers |
| 6. Nadduvar |
Musicians |
| 7a.Vannar |
Dhoby (people who wash
clothes) |
| B.-The
Unclean Castes |
| 7b. Ambattar |
Barber |
| 8. Palla |
Cooly Labourers |
| Nalava |
Tree-tappers and labourers |
| 9. Kusavar |
Potters |
| Seneer |
Weavers |
| 10. Kadaiyar |
Lime-burners |
| Chalckiliyar |
Leather-workers |
| 11. Paraiyar |
Scavengers, funeral tom-tom
beaters |
| 12. Thurumba |
Dhobics to Palla, Nalava and
Paraiyar |
|
|
|
|
The second list gives a classification of the South
Indians who have come to work in Ceylon. whether they
be traders or immigrated labourers. Here again there is
a division into two main groups, the Kudianas and the
non-Kudianas. Mr. Lewis B. Green writes : " On
enquiring the caste of a cooly (South Indian), the
answer will frequently be, ` I am a Kudiana"
1
This term Kudiana roughly covers the caste described as
` clean ' in the first list. On the tea and rubber
estates in Ceylon most of these South Indian Tamils are
now no longer following their hereditary
occupation.
List 2 - South Indian Tamils
(Hindus)
| Caste |
Hereditary Occupation |
| A.
Kudianas |
| 1. Vellala |
Cultivators |
| Chettiar |
Traders |
| 2. Retti (or
Kappu) |
Cultivators |
| 3. Kallar |
Robbers. Originally these people
were thieves but now they have taken to cultivation
and estate work. On the estates they are good
watchmcn; a case of ` set a thief to catch a
thief.' |
| 4. Ambalakarar |
Cultivators |
| Muthiriyar |
A Telugu caste, hunters and
fishermen now employed on the estates. |
| Pandaram |
Non-Brahmanic priests drawn from
the other castes. |
| Andi |
Beggars. |
| 5. The Panchalas
(Craftsmen) |
| Asari |
Goldsmiths |
| Kammalagar |
Brassworkers |
| Kannar |
Brassworkers |
| Odde |
Masons |
| Thachchar |
Carpenters |
| Kollar |
Ironsmiths and blacksmiths |
| 6. Ideiyar |
Shepherds and Cattleherds. Many
are now employed on the estates as carters,
wheelwrights, shoe-wrights and even
cattle-keepers. |
| 7. Kaikolan |
Weavers |
| Kurumba |
jungle people of South India |
| B.
Non-Kudianas. |
|
| 8. Kosavan |
Potters |
| 9, Shannar |
Tree-Tappers |
| Palla |
Labourers |
| Kosavar |
Gypsies |
| 10.Ambattar |
Barber |
| Vannar |
Dhoby. |
|
N.B.-Among both these castes are
those who practise Ayurvedic medicine, exorcism of
demons. Many of their wives are recognised
midwives. They do not eat meat or drink
liquor. |
| 11. Chakkiliyar |
Leatherworkers. Sweepers. |
| 12. Paraiyars |
The funeral tom-tom beaters. Their
position in Ceylon is slightly better than it is in
India. They eat meat, even carrion flesh. Their
priests, called Valluvar, are adepts at charms and
astrology. |
This list of South Indian Tamils does not claim to
exhaust all the South Indian Tamils who have come to
Ceylon but it covers the main groups that are found
working in the Island.
It is necessary to add
explanatory notes on the castes of the Ceylon
Tamils.
1. The Brahman.
In Ceylon there is a very
small community of Brahmans and practically all of them
are attached to temples, either as priests or as
assistants. Comparatively few of them receive an
education in the recognised English Secondary Schools.
This is a rather different position from that held by
Brahmans in. India. The Brahmans in India are certainly
not confined to the temples ; indeed most of them are
among the best educated people and are taking an active
part in the economic and political life of the country.
There are some people who think that the Ceylon
Brahmans are not really Brahmans by race. To cross the
sea is one way to lose caste, and it is thought that a
high caste Brahman in India would not lightly take the
adventure across the sea to Ceylon. Hence those who
hold this view contend that the Brahmans who are
presently attached to temples in Ceylon were originally
selected by the community from another caste for this
purpose. Whatever be their origin they are held in
great respect and they are looked upon as the superior
caste. The Brahmans. wear the sacred thread : they are
also strictly vegetarian.
2. The Vellala.
When reference is made in
Ceylon to the high caste Hindu, everyone has in mind
the Vellala, the respectable, nonBrahman caste. About
90 per cent of the well educated Hindus belong to this
caste. Traditionally they are cultivators, and even
now, although many of them have obtained posts in
Government service, they still retain. thcir fields for
tills is their title right to their 'Standing in tile
community. Although some Vellalas are strictly
vegetarian, others will eat mutton, fowl and certain
kinds of fish, but they will not touch beef, pork,
turtle and other kinds of fish. Among the Vellalas
themselves there are many sub-divisions, some of which
are regarded as higher than others. The Vellalas of
Paloli (Point Pedro), Karativu. and Arali for instance,
are regarded as pure 'Blue' Vellalas, and they lay
claim to a respect which no one will dispute ; they
are' citizens of no mean city.' Some of the Vellalas
claim to be called Chetty Vellala and to belong to a
slightly higher caste than the other Vellalas, but
although many of the villagers recognize their claim,
there is little support for it, and in fact they
actually inter-marry with the other Vellalas. These
Chetty Vellalas should be distinguished from the
Chettiar community which has immigrated to Ceylon from
South India. These South Indian Chettiars originate
from an area known as Nattu Chotty. Their chief, the
late Sri Annamalai Chettiar, who founded the Annamalai
University, received the title of Raja from the British
Government. These Chettiars from South India are a
wealthy, influential trading community. They too are
Saivite Hindus and many of their temples are in
Colombo.
3. The Karaiyar
The Karaiyar or fisherfolk
caste is regarded as much inferior to the Vellalas.
They live mainly near the coast. Many of them are now
well educated and hold good positions. Many of them
have become Roman Catholics. The Muchavar, also
fisherfolk, are generally regarded as a lower caste
than the Karaiyar who refuse to intermarry with
them
4. The Koviyar
This Koviyar caste is
unknown in India, and the community in Ceylon is very
small, being largely confined to the Jaffna peninsula.
It is widely believed that they were originally
Sinhalese and that their ancestors were war captives.
Their main occupation is that of domestic servants to
the Vellalas, and they are recognized as ,excellent
cooks. At a Vellala funeral, it has long been the
custom for the Koviyar caste to carry the corpse. In
social status, however, they are roughly parallel to
the Karaiyar.
5. The
Panchalas.
This is the general
designation given to the five groups of craftsmen, and
they are regarded as parallel castes. The Thattar,
goldsmiths, are responsible for all the jewellery and
ornaments to which Hindu women and men are most
partial. Many of the Panchala castes are now educated
and have found employment as clerks in the Government
Clerical Service.
6. The Nadduvar.
These are the musicians
engaged for most domestic, social and religions
functions, though they are not called for funerals. In
India, it is from this caste that the Deva-adiyalkal,
the temple dancers, are drawn. But in addition to these
professional Nautch girls who come to Ceylon from South
India, there are others drawn from the Nadduvar caste
in Ceylon. The professional prostitutes belong to this
caste. Originally they were undoubtedly associated with
the temple, but nowadays they are mainly concerned with
the commercial aspect of their profession.
Nevertheless, many of them are still regarded as
married to a god. They take part in a ceremony called
Podduccaddutal, during which a circular metal symbol is
placed round the neck. Among the Hindus in Ceylon the
token and symbol of marriage is the tali, which is
fastened round the bride's neck. When a marriage
between a man and a woman takes place, the tali is
engraved But the professional prostitute, who undergoes
this rite, Podduccaddutal, receives a blank tali. She
is married not to a particular man, but to the god.
All the castes already commented upon are regarded as `
Clean' castes, although there is such a wide difference
iii their social rank.
7. a. The Vannar, the dhoby, is permitted to
enter the temple. But the remaining castes, including,
7. b. The Ambattar the barber, are unclean ;
they are not permitted to enter the temple. All these `
unclean ' castes are able to pollute the higher, `
clean ' castes. Poluution in Ceylon is only by actual
contact; pollution by shadow is not recognized except
by a few Hindus, who believe that they ,can be polluted
even by the shadow of certain birds.
Nowadays even pollution by
touch is necessarily modified, for in the public
trains, tramcars and buses, there are no separate
compartments specially allocated to high and low
castes. In many of these crowded conveyances contact
with low caste men is almost unavoidable. There are, of
course, many strict Hindus who take all necessary
precautions, and, whenever they travel, they will,
before entering a high caste home, purify themselves by
washing.
8. The Palla and the
Nalava
The Palla are the field
labourers, the, coolies. The Nalava are also labourers,
but they are generally known as the tree-tappers,
tapping the palmyrah, kitul and coconut trees from.
which toddy and arrack are obtained. These two castes
are roughly of equal status. They seldom own land.
Originally they were almost the slaves of the Vellala
who allowed them to occupy his outer buildings and, for
this privilege, they worked in his fields. The British
made every effort to abolish this system of forced
labour, known as Rajakariya_
This they accomplished in
1832, in spite of considerable local opposition. The
abolition of Rajakariya put an end to the legal
sanction which the caste system of forced labour had
hitherto received. Nevertheless,. the Vellala continued
to treat the Palla and the Nalava as inferiors. Even
today, the older Palla and Nalava women in Jaffna
continue to wear the sari just above their breac.ts,
leaving their shoulders bare. This practice was,
hitherto, rigidly enforced by the higher castes. But
many of the younger Pa11a and Nalava women, especially
those who have received a little education and are more
prosperous, now insist on wearing the sari over their
shoulders. On the whole, the Palla and Nalava castes
have a darker skin. These two castes will sometimes
intermarry, but they will not interdine.
9. Kusavar and
Seneer.
The Kusavar are the
potters ; the Seneer are the weavers. Their
occupations, unlike those of the Panchalas, are
regarded as menial arid for this reason they are `
unclean ' castes.
10. Kadaiyar and
Chakkiliyar.
Kadaiyar are the lime
burners. They also undertake the work of colour vs
ashing buildings. The Chakkiliyar are people who work
in leather, and, as the hide comes from the sacred cow,
they are considered a very low caste.
11. The
Paraiyar
The Paraiyar is not really
a caste, but an outcaste. They eat beef and sometimes
carrion flesh They are the noisy tom-tom beaters,
engaged at funerals and also for the purpose of town
crying. The Tamil word " parai " means 'drum ' ; its
verb means to " announce." The Paraiyar caste also
provides the greater portion of the scavengers, urban
and municipal.
12. The Thurumba -
The Thurumba are the lowest of the low castes. They are
really the dhobies for the Palla, the Nalava and the
Paraiyar. They are usually found distant from the towns
and rarely come into contact with the high castes. The
Vannar, considered higher than the Palla, would never
consent to wash clothes for the Palla, and hence this
work is done by the Thurumba caste. The late Rev.
Father Gnana Pragasam held that all the Thurumba caste
people are now Roman Catholics. This claim may be true,
but it does not in any way alter their status in the
eyes of the Hindus.
Caste Observances
1. Eating
The general practice is for only the
members of the same caste to eat together. This
practice refers to the full meal of which cooked rice
forms a part. At weddings and other social events,
short eats and cake may be served to all who are
present, irrespective of caste, though the Brahman
would refuse to eat with others even on such occasions.
Food :sc-nt by members of a higher caste to those of a
lower caste can be eaten, but again the meal is shared
by only members of that lower caste. Rice must be
cooked by a member of the same caste. There is one
strange exception to this rule. The Koviyar are engaged
as cooks to the Vellala and no question of pollution
ever rises. It has already been pointed out that this
Koviyar caste is an anomaly, and this may account for
the exception. In Colombo where life is cosmopolitan
and greatly influenced by western civilization, there
is some relaxation of the caste rules regarding eating.
Here members of different castes may mix and dine
together. Strangely enough, however, when these very
same persons are in Jaffna, they strictly observe the
caste exclusiveness by eating with only members of
their own caste.
2. Marriage
A proper Hindu marriage is possible
only within the same caste. A high caste man may have a
mistress in a slightly lower caste without being
polluted, but he must not marry outside his own caste.
According to Hindu Law, inter-caste marriage is
illegal. In India, polygamy is lawful even according to
Civil Law, but in Ceylon the Civil haw insists on
monogamous marriage even for Hindus.
3. Dress.
The low ` uuclean ' castes are expected
by Hindu custom to conform to certain recognized dress.
The men should be barebodied, and certainly not presume
to wear a jacket. There are instances where low caste
men have been threatened and even abused by high caste
men for presuminmg to wear dress not in keeping with
their social status. The Palla and Nalava women, as
already explained, are expected to leave their
shoulders bare. In Jaffna and parts of the Eastern
Province these customs regarding dress are fairly
strictly observed, but elsewhere, especially on the
estates where climatic conditions necessitates warm
clothes, the customs are considerably relaxed.
Losing Caste
There are several recognized ways by
which a Hindu may lose caste. One way is by marriage to
a person belonging to a lower caste. Such a person
would then be considered to belong to the.lower caste.
Theoretically a person who eats beef becomes a
Paraiyar, but today, in practice, this is generally
overlooked. In Colombo it is all but ignored. A person
who kills his father should really become a Paraiyar.
In many of the sacred Hindu books, plays, songs, poems,
it
is held that a person loses caste when he commits
sacrilege. But again in practice this is ignored.,
perhaps because few really know what is meant by
sacrilege. Another way by which one may lose caste is
to leave one's own country, especially if one should
cross the sea.
Regaining Caste
There is a religious ceremony called
Prayacitta 2 by which a man who has married
outside his caste, or committed sacrilege or travelled
abroad, may regain caste. Members of his family take
him to the temple where he is cross-examined by the
priest to whom he promises to make amends for the past.
He is bathed ceremoniously and is required to accept
some form of penance, such as rolling round the temple,
or, more commonly, the payment of
a fee. Generally, apart from the penance, there is an
offering made to the temple. The priest recites
prescribed verses and finally declares the man clean.
Many young Hindus have left Ceylon for higher education
in Europe, especially in England. In former days, all
without exception submitted themselves, on their
return, to this religious ceremony, even today many
orthodox Vellalas strictly observe this practise. Many
of the South Indian Tamils who come to Ceylon for work
in the estates submit to a similar religious ceremony
on their return to India.
The Twice Born
The twice born Hindus are those who
have passed from one cycle of re-births and are now
permitted to wear the sacred thread. In India the twice
born are confined to the three higher castes, but in
Ceylon, they include the Brahmans and a very small
percentage of very high caste Vellalas of both sexes,
all of whom undergo a religious ceremony called Diksha.
Brahmans invariably take this initiation ceremony about
the age of five or six ; the high caste Vellalas take
it later when they are fourteen or fifteen.
For a month before and a month. after
the ceremony, the candidate for initiation is strictly
vegetarian. in his diet, and during the preparatory
month he is taught Sanskrit prayers. On the chosen day
he is ceremonially bathed and taken to the temple whore
the priest repeats several mantrams and whispers
something into his ear, something which he is to keep
secret and never tell to another Hindu ; to tell
another uninitiated Hindu is regarded as a grievous
sin. The secret word is s AUM Sivayaham which is Siva's
name.
During the ceremony, sacred ash is
smeared with three finger tips, forming three distinct
bars or lines upon sixteen different parts of the body.
The uninitiated will just rub the ash upon his
forehead, but those who have taken " Diksha " are
entitled to wear the three distinct bars of the
Saivaites For each mark upon the body there is also a
corresponding prayer.
The Hindu has a string of seeds from
the tree Rudraksha (Rudra, being another name for Siva,
and aksha meaning " an eye.") This string of seeds is
like the Roman Catholic's rosary. The sacred number of
seeds is one hundred and one. The twice-born Saivite
will wear this string of Rudraksha seeds around his
neck.
Another privilege of the twice-born is
the wearing of the, sacred thread. Incidentally, in
Jaffna, the Thattar, goldsmiths, also wear a thread,
though they have not undertaken this ceremony, nor are
they regarded as twice-born. The Thattar, however, wear
the thread over the right shoulder and under the left
arm, whilst the twice-born wear the sacred thread over
the left shoulder and under the right arm. Having been
duly initiated, the twice-born Hindu is expected
henceforth to maintain a higher standard than other
Hindus in the observance of ceremonial religion. He is
expected to be more strictly vegetarian and more
regular in his bathing. Moreover, the twice-born is
expected to attain a higher standard of moral
behaviour.
Caste and Occupation
In Ceylon, caste, at any rate in
origin, was closely associated with a particular
occupation, but today that particular occupation is not
necessarily followed by all the members of the same
caste. Nevertheless, whenever another occupation or
profession is taken up, it is never one that it is
associated with another caste : it is always work that
does not seem to have been provided for among the
respective castes.
Government service, especially during
the British occupation of Ceylon, has provided many
posts for Hindus, such as, Engineering, especially in
connection with roads and irrigation ; Postal services
; Railways ; work at the Port of Colombo ; Bank clerks
and messengers ; all the professions, doctors,
apothecaries, inspectors of schools, teachers, lawyers.
All these occupations are open to men of all castes. In
actual practice most of the highly paid posts have been
filled by men from the high castes, though members of
the lower castes are found in most of the professions
and clerical occupations. On the Tea and Rubber Estates
also much of the work, both in the field and in the
factory, is entirely new and does not have any
particular caste flavour. But even though a man may
change his occupation, he still retains his caste. Many
Vellalas who have ceased to be cultivators still hold
tenaciously to their land and property, for this is the
outward and visible proof of their caste claims.
The Unclean Castes
The unclean castes among the Ceylon
Hindus are not permitted to enter the larger temples,
or to bathe in the sacred tanks, springs or rivers.
There is as yet no universal welcome extended to them.
In India there has been considerable agitation to open
the temples to Harijans, but in Ceylon such agitation
is spasmodic, In Jaffna and the Eastern Provinces, the
unclean castes are just kept out.
Many of them have their own smaller
temples and shrines, and their most popular gods and
goddesses are Bhairava, Ganesa, Virabhdra, Aiyanar,
Muni, Muniandy, Annamar, Madasvami, Kannakai, Kali and
Mari Amman. The Palla and the Nalava castes have their
own temples and their own priests, and they in turn
refuse admission to the Thurumba and the Paraiyar. At
these Palla and Nalava temples, the sacrifice of goats
and fowls is commonly practiced. In addition to these
low caste temples, there are numerous shrines found
under trees, or by the side of the paddy fields in
which the Palla and the Nalava work.
The Paraiyars also set up their own
little shrines under wayside trees. Even the language
and forms of address emphasize the difference that
exists between the castes. In Tamil there are three
forms for the second person singular. The first "
Neengal " is used when a superior is addressed ; the
second, " Deer " is used when addressing an equal ; the
third, " Nee," is used only for an inferior. The high
caste man always employs the third term when addressing
a member of the lower caste. When a Paraiyar man is
asked for his name, he will reply : " I think I am a
Perumal." These unclean castes as a general rule -
preface their statements with this, `I think', which
goes to emphasize their modesty and lowly status.
High caste Hindus use this expression
only when they address a holy man. For centuries the
unclean castes have acquiesced in their lot. But today
there are abundant signs of uneasiness among both high
caste and low caste : the former fears the awakening of
the latter, whilst the latter is beginning to demand
rights which the former has so long denied him. The
introduction of universal franchise has placed a
powerful weapon in the hands of the low caste.
The provision of education, now free
from the Kindergarten to the University, has made it
possible for the low caste to understand more of the
world in which he lives. The infiltration of Communist
political propaganda has helped to fire the low caste
with greater determination to throw off the stigma of
caste. Many instances of the changing situation could
be given. Here and there comes the demand to open
temples to all castes. The incident, already recorded,
at the Nallur Skanda Temple exemplifies this
demand.
There is also the demand to open
schools, hitherto attended by only high caste children,
to the children of the low castes. A few years ago, the
Manager of a Christian School at Tunnalai East
requested the head teacher to admit low caste children.
At first, the head teacher refused, but, when the
Manager threatened to report him to the Education
Department, he acquiesced.
But during the following night, the
school building was burned down. Some years ago the
Education Department arranged to supply midday meals to
school children. This created certain difficulties even
in those schools to which only `clean ' caste children
go, but the employment of a high caste cook and the
grouping of children into caste groups for the, actual
eating of the meal met the situation. The children
bring their own plates and so avoid pollution. On an
estate, there is usually only one school which all
children attend, whether they are regarded as clean or
unclean, but invariably these children are separated
into caste, groups for their lessons as well as for
their midday meal. The opening of many new Government
Central Schools, in which free education is provided
for every child, irrespective of caste, will tend to
bring children of all castes together. This has long
been taking place in the Christian denominational
schools, and now the Government Schools are pledged to
extend this reformation.
Now and again very unpleasant clashes
take place between the high castes and the low castes.
According to Hindu custom, the high caste cremates his
dead, whilst the law castes buries his dead. Legally,
however, all castes can claim to cremate their dead. At
Viloondy, in Jaffna, in 1945, a number of people
belonging to the Nalava caste claimed the right to
cremate a corpse in the cremation grounds used by the
Vellalas. The Vellalas raised an objection to this, but
the Nalavas ignored them. Then followed a skirmish in
which two members of the Nalava caste were shot and
killed.
In April, 1947, very near to Jaffna
town, another low caste man was shot by a boutique
keeper. The unclean castes are permitted to buy tea to
drink at the boutique (a small street shop), provided
they bring their own vessel into which the tea is
poured. On this occasion a man of an unclean caste
failed to bring his vessel, but seeing an empty
cigarette tin inside the boutique, he suggested that
this be given him for his tea. The boutique keeper, to
whom the cigarette tin belonged, shot and killed this
low caste man for his insolence and forgetfulness of
his station. Both these incidents subsequently came
before the law courts.
On the estates the South Indian Tamils
are not subject to the manifold caste restrictions that
appertain in South India In South India, the Paraiyars
and other outcaste groups are obliged to live in
separate villages, and they are not permitted to draw
water from the well which is used by other castes. In
Ceylon, though a planter takes note of caste when
arranging to accommodate his workers in the "lines",
there is nothing like the same segregation, and all
castes draw water from a common spout. Most of the
labourers employed on an estate have access to the
estate Hindu temple. The conditions under which they
live and work have tended to break down many of the
caste distinctions.
Non Hindus and Caste
Theoretically Christian Tamils,
Europeans, Burghers and Muslims are outcastes, and as a
general rule they are treated as such as far as temple
ritual and worship is concerned. In practice there is
little evidence that any of these groups are so
treated. But Muslims are really outcastes because they
are beef- eaters, so also are the beef-eaters among
Christians. In the majority of Hindu temples in Ceylon,
a European is permitted to enter provided he removes
his shoes, and, in some instances, provided he washes
his feet before entering. There are some Hindu temples
where the European is not welcome, especially at the
festival season. Buddhists. who theoretically are
heretics, are not regarded as outcastes.3 For
Hindus in Ceylon, Buddhism is a tolerated religion. The
Buddhist is commended because he is not a beef-eater.
The Vaddas, strangely enough, are regarded as fairly
good caste, for though they eat many kinds of meat,
they do not eat beef. The regard for them may be due in
part to the legend of Skanda the favourite god, and the
Vadda princess, Valli, whom he weed and married.
Nevertheless, according to Hindu writings, a man can
only be a Hindu if he is actually born a Hindu. Others
who wish to become Hindus can, in their present life,
arrive at a right conception of Hinduism, and then, in
the next birth, they will be born a Hindu.
1.
Lewis D. Green, op. cit., page 3.
2. A Ceremony of
Atonement, cf Crown of Hinduism, J.N.Farqubar page
171
3. Most of the
villagers who support the Sivan Temple at Munnesvaram
are Sinhalese.
