Introduction
In all major civilisations of the world art has been
one of the primary media through which the creative
urge and genius of the people have been succinctly
expressed.
The term 'art' is so comprehensive in its
connotation that it includes in its fold different
fields of human enterprise. But in our consideration
here its meaning is restricted to the fields of
architecture, sculpture and painting, the three main
channels through which both the artistic mastery and
profound philosophical truths of ancient India have
been expressed.
The Tamil country has been, throughout the
successive historical periods, the meeting ground of
many an artistic motif, design and norm, so much so
that in her sculptural and architectural contributions
the harmonious blending of diverse regional idioms are
manifestly evident. It is not possible to recount in
its entirety the history of the development of Tamil
art, from its evolutionary beginnings to its
consummation and final exhaustion, within the limited
time at our disposal; what is attempted here is only a
panoramic survey of the salient features of Tamil art.
It is necessary here to point out that the name Tamil
Nad in our discussion does not mean the modern State of
Madras but refers to the areas under the cultural
hegemony of Tamil - the area roughly corresponding to
large parts outside it, and adjoining it.
Architecture
Before sketching in outline the evolution of
architecture it is necessary to acquaint ourselves with
the major types of extant structures. These basic
shapes are fivefold, viz., square (caturasra),
rectangular (ayatasra), elliptical (vrittayata),
circular (vritta) and octagonal (astasra). Generally
speaking the plan of the temple was conditioned by the
nature of the consecrated deity. The shrine of the
reclining Ranganatha, for example, can only be
rectangular. The basic shapes are amply reflected in
the superstructure of the vimas . Though square and
rectangular shrines are frequently met with, circular
and octagonal shapes are very rare. However these forms
are represented in the sikhara of the vimana. The
apsidal form, a derivative from Buddhist architecture,
was popular up to the 10th century in the Tondaimandalam, after which it
declined in usage.
Mention should also be made here of the temples
which have more than one shrine in the vertical order.
This is to be found in a handful of Vaisnava temples as
those at Kancipuram, Uttiramerur, Madurai,
Tirukkostiyur etc. Three shrines, one above the other,
are found in these and are intended for the seated,
standing and reclining forms of Visnu.
Unlike other parts of India the architectural
history of the Tamil country starts only with the
beginning of the seventh century A.D., the monuments
built before that period having perished. In early
Tamil literature we hear of such structures as koyil,
maddam, nagaram, palli, pali. etc., which are
apparently references to temples or religious edifices.
Presumably they were built of impermanent materials
which have succumbed to the ravages of time.
The earliest extant monuments in the Tamil country
are the rock-cut caves scooped out under the Pallavas,
and following them by the Pandyas, Muttaraiyars, and
Atiyas. In his inscription in the cave of Laksitayatana
at Mandagappattu, South Arcot district, Mahendravarman
I (610-630 A.D.) declares that he caused the
construction of the temple for Siva, Visnu and Brahma
without the use of conventional building materials like
brick, timber, metal and mortar; and the tenor of the
language has been taken to indicate that the king was
introducing a new mode of architecture by scooping out
the cave. Many other cave temples are definitely
attributable to Mahendravarman on the authority of his
inscriptions in them. These include the excavations at
Pallavaram, Mahendravadi, Mamandur, Tiruchirapalli,
Slyamangalam and Dalavanur. The Vasantesvaram at Vallam
was also excavated in Mahendravaraman's reign by a
feudatory of his.
Besides these caves of definite authorship, those at
Kuranganilmuttam, Vilappakkam, Aragandanallur and the
Rudravahsvara cave at Mamandur are stylistically
attributable to the period of Mahendravarman. These
caves of Mahendra are simple in plan and consist of a
mandapa with one or a few shrines. The sculptural
decoration of the caves is inconspicuous. The pillars
in them are equidistant and have square sections both
on base and top with the portion in between chamfered
octagonally. In the square section are seen delicate
carvings of lotus medallions. The pillars and pilasters
carry on top massive corbels with beams. This 'Mahendra
style' was continued by his son and successor Mamalla,
the famous Narasimhavarman I, who, however, introduced
certain variations in some of his caves. In these the
entablature is almost completely finished, unlike in
those of the Mahendra variety. Besides kudu arches in
the cornice, it carries salas, karnakutas and
alpanasikas. The pillars in Mamalla's caves are not
only taller but also more slender than those of his
father. The strutting figure of a lion ro vyala as the
base of the pillar is a notable feature. Again in
Mamalla's caves one can also find large bas-reliefs on
walls in striking contrast to their plain nature in all
but one of Mahendra's caves. The Konerimandapam,
Varahamandapam, Mahisamardanimandapam, Trimurti cave,
Adivaraha cave, Ramanujamand. apam, etc. - all at
Mahabalipuram - are typical examples of the Mamalla
types of rock architecture.
The Pandyas, who were ruling in the extreme south of
the Tamil country, appear to have soon adopted the
rock-cut technique and developed certain interesting
variations in their excavations. It is possible that
the cave at Pillaiyarpatti is one of the earliest
Pandya attempts in the rock medium as evidenced by the
archaic palaegraphy of the inscription in Vatteluttu
characters in it. The Siva cave shrine at
Malaiyadikurichi is assignable on the basis of an
inscription to the second half of the seventh century
and the Narasimha cave at Anamalai and the Subrahmanya
cave at Tirupparankunram are on the same ground datable
respectively to 770 to 773 A.D.
At Tiruttangal, Piranmalai, Kudumiyamalai and
Sittannavasal are to be found other caves of the
Pandyas. Though similar to Pallava caves in plan and
design, the Pandya examples differ from them in their
adoption of certain Calukyan features such as the
introduction of the rock-cut linga and Nandi and
sculptural representations of Ganesa and Saptamatrkas.
The pillars are large and reminiscent of those of the
Mahendra variety with corbels generally with a plain
level. In this movement of scooping out live rocks for
divine abodes minor dynasties like the Atiyas and
Muttaraiyars also participated, though stylistically
their excavations are much akin to those of their
political master. The cave at Namakkal is evidently an
Atiya enterprise while Muttaraiya involvement may be
seen at Tiruvellarai, Narttamalai, Kunrlandarkoil
etc.
Under Narasimhavarma I, Pallava rock-architecture
took a new turn. besides cutting into rocks for caves,
attempts were made to cut out monoliths from rocks. The
rudiments of this practice are to be found in the
carved-out stupas in the caves of Western India and the
vimana-form in the Tawa cave at Udayagiri but it was at
Mahabalipuram under the Pallavas that
it found a full and eloquent expression.
Architecturally they depict the external aspects of
contemporary brick and timber structures. There are as
many as nine monoliths at Mahabalipuram of which the
five, named after the Pandavas and Draupadi, are a
well-known assemblage of contiguous excavations, the
other examples are the Ganesa ratha, Valayankuttai
ratha and the two Pidari rathas. As they represent
varying architectural designs they are of primary
importance for any study of the plan and different
zones and the details of the Yima-nas. The Dharmaraja-ratha is
three-storeyed with a square viguana and an octagonal
dome. Though the Arjunaratha is similar to this it
is two-storeyed. The Bhimaratha has a wagon-top roof
and is single-storeyed unlike the Ganesa ratha, another
example of wagon top roof, which is double-storeyed.
The Draupadiratha is hut-shaped and
is square in plan and its roof is domical. The Sahadevaratha represents the
apsidal form with its back resembling that of an
elephant, a feature high-lighted by the carving of a
huge elephant by the side of the monolith.
The only non-Pallava monolith in the Tamil country
is Kalugumalai which was cut-out under the Pandyas.
This has been cutout, like the Rastrakuta monoliths in
the Deccan, by entrenching all round and not by free
cutting of standing rocks as in the Pallava domain.
Though the rock medium appears to have continued for
some more time it was soon replaced by structural
temples. This movement, as available evidences
indicate, appears to have first started under
Narasimhavarman I's grand-son Paramesvaravarman
(669-691 A.D.), though it is not unlikely that the
practice was still older. A few pillars in the typical
Mahendra style, one of them with an inscription of
Mahendravarman I, found in the Eltamranatha temple at
Kancipuram seem to suggest that even at the beginning
of the seventh century structural mandapas were built.
The presence of Pallava pillars at Sivanvayil, Kuram,
Vayalur, Tirupporur etc., is enough to confirm
this.
The Vidyavimta Pallavesvaragriha at Kuram built by
Paramesvaravarman I is an early structural edifice. The
provision of a series of vertical and horizontal slabs
instead of a full bAitti is an interesting and early
feature in this temple. While this is a small temple
and reflects the modest nature of the enterprise, the
temples of the next reign are large in size, elaborate
in plan and rich in architectural and sculptural
decorations. With the accession of Narasimhavarman II
Rajasimha the history of Pallava architecture enters
upon a new and eventful phase. While the temples of
Kailasanatha at Kancipuram,
Talagirlsvara at Panamalai and the Shore temple at Mahabalipuram are
indisputably assignable to his reign on epigraphical
grounds, a large number of other smaller temples are
also stylistically akin to them. The temples of
Vaikuntanatha, Muktesvara and Matangesvara at
Kancipuram are said to be slightly later and belong to
the reign of Nandivarman Pallavamalla.
The Kailasanatha is four-storeyed and is an example
of sandharaprasada containing two walls providing an
ambulatory. The storeys are decorated with
architectural designs like kutas, kostas and panjaras.
The pillars in structural temples are with rampant
lions generally and with elephants, nagas and bhulas at
times. Niches are to be seen in both the rock-cut and
structural temples and have a makaratorana decoration
on their top, the makaras in them having floriated
tails overflowing on the sides. The corbels are
generally curved in profile with the taranga (wave
moulding) ornament and a median band. The gopuras are
absent in these early temples.
In the Kailasanatha at Kanci and the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram
there are faint but unmistakable suggestions of
gopuradhvaras which were to evolve into towers. Another
feature of these early structural temples is the almost
prodigal sculptural embellishment of the exterior
walls. The carvings are invariably those of deities, a
few of which appear to be fresh inceptions from the
Calukyan area.
The Colas who supplanted the Pallavas about the
middle of the ninth century as a political force
continued the latter's artistic activities. For about
five centuries a large part of the Tamil country
besides peripheral regions in contiguous areas in
Andhra, Karnataka and Kerala were under their sway
which they studded with hundreds of temples. On the
basis of certain accepted notions regarding the
evolution of temple architecture and on the authority
of numerous inscriptions it is now fairly possible to
determine the dates of most of the Cola monuments.
Though the periodisation of South Indian art-history is
even now a subject of debate it is conceded by most
scholars that the Cola temples are broadly divisible
into three groups:
the first group belonging to the period from the
accession of Vijayalaya to the accession of Rajaraja
I (i.e., 850-985 A.D.);
the second group assignable to the period from the
accession of Rajaraja I to the accession of
Kulottunga (985-1070 A.D.); and
the third group comprising the period from the
accession of Kulottunga I to the decline and fall of
the Cola empire under Rajaraja III and Rajendra III
(1070-1270 A.D .).
The temples of the first group are many which in
stylistic characteristics break away from the
structural temples of the Pallavas. In the Pallava
temples the lowermost tier of the vimana is extended to
the vestibule in front of the shrine, while this is not
found in early Cola temples, the only exception being
the Vijayalayacolisvaram at Narttamalai, which
according to recent researches is not a Cola but a
Muttaraiya edifice. The torus moulding in the basement
which is chamfered in Pallava temples continues to be
so in the Cola period for sometime but soon gets a
rounded shape. The cornice in Cola temples is no longer
a projecting tier as it is in Pallava monuments but
gets a flexed shape. The old lion and vyala motifs in
pillars are also dispensed with, though they linger for
sometime in a few temples. Further, the corbels in
pillars get an angular profile and are bevelled,
resulting in a triangular, tenon-like projection. The
absence of extravagant sculptural decoration on the
exterior of the shrine walls is another distinguishing
feature.
Though typical early Cola examples are numerous,
special mention must be made of those at Kilaiyur,
Srinivasanallur, Kumbhakonam, Erumbur, Pullamangai,
Punjai and Kodumbalur. The introduction of sub shrines
for attendant divinities (parivara-devatas) noticed in
these temples reveals elaboration and development of
the temple complex. In fact the beginnings of this
practice are to be discerned even in the latter Pallava
temple of Virattanesvara at Tiruttani built under
Aparajita.
This temple, though Pallava in name, is Cola in
design and style and chronologically almost coeval with
some of the Cola monuments enumerated above. The
parivdra shrines, usually eight in number, were meant
for attendant deities like Ganesa, Subrahmartya, Surya,
Candra, Saptamatrkas, Jyestha, Candikesvara and Nandi.
The gopuras of this period continue to be
inconspicuous, the vimãnas, dominating the temple
complex.
Generally speaking, temples built under Aditya and
Parãntaka contained only three niches in the
shrine walls, one on each wall, and two niches in the
walls of the ardhamandapa, again one on each wall.
While the niches in the southern and northern walls of
the ardhamandapa carried respectively carvings of
Ganesha nd Durga, those of the main shrine were
intended for Daksinämurti and Brahmã. The
niche in the rear wall offered scope for variation, the
enshrined deity being either Lingodhbhava or Visnu,
Harihara or Ardhanãrisvara. But even in two very
early temples - those at Srinivasanallur and
Kumbhakonam - the tendency to multiply the niches is
found, the additional niches carrying what looks like
portraits. This tendency has been developed in the
temples built by Sembiyan Mahadevi, mother of
Uttamacola at such places as Tirukkodikkãval,
Sembiyan Mahãdevi, Anangur, Aduturai,
Tirunaraiyur, Kuttälam, etc., where the additional
niches carry such iconographic types as Natarãja,
Bhiksätana and Ardhanri besides Agastya.
These early Cola architectural traditions are
carried to those of the later Cola period by the
temples built under the illustrious Rajaraja and his
son Räjëndra. Many are the extant examples
assignable to this middle phase, the most famous among
them being the Brihadisvara
temples at Tanjore and Gangaikondacolapuram.
Other temples of this period are those at Tiruvaji,
Mëlpadi, Tiruvalañjuli, Tirumalavadi,
Tiruvarangulam, Dadapuram, etc. In most of these
temples the basement is ornamented with pilasters which
carry a cornice. The walls have a greater number of
niches and a semi-circular arch (tiruvacci) the centre
of which is identical with that of' the küdu which
appears beneath the architrave and over the niche. The
introduction of the kumbhapañjara in between the
niches is another feature.
The Tanjore temple is undoubtedly the
grandest achievement of the age. It was more a
monument of triumph than a strict example of temple
architecture. It is in this temple that one notices for
the first time two gopuras oriented in the same
direction. They are architecturally coeval with the
main vimana and are referred to in inscriptions as
Rajarãjan tiruvasal and Keralãntakan
tiruvasal In spite of the massive size of the gopuras
the vimãna, rising majestically to a height of 190
feet, continues to dominate and it is only in the
subsequent period that a change in the gradation of
magnitude takes place.
The multiplication of parivãra shrines and the
introduction of a separate shrine for the goddess are
the two significant changes in the temple complex
effected during this period. Even in the Tanjore temple
the Devi shrine is not contemporaneous with the main
cella but was built later. The earliest Devi shrine
which appears to be definitely chronologically coeval
with the main shrine is the one at
Gangaikondacolapuram.
The Devi shrines, known as Tirukkdmakkottams, were
thus largely a feature from the reign of
Räjëndra. In the temples representing the
final phase of Cola architecture a discernible maturity
of style is evident. Notable examples of them are to be
found at Dãräsuram, Tribhuvanam, Chidambaram
and Jambukesvaram. Of the stylistic improvements made
in these temples mention must be made of the torus
moulding in the basement which is rounded and has a
smooth surface, though in a few cases it is
ornamented with vertical grooves or ribs. The
makaratoranas become tall with narrow reverse curves on
each side; the kumbhapanjaras are also developed and
carry on top over the abacus the superstructure of a
panjara. The phalaka in the pillars are thinner than
those of earlier periods and the padma below it, which
is inverted and smooth in early temples, now has
petals. The pillars in the mandapas have attached
pilasters on their sides, known as Aniyottikal.
Perhaps the most distinguishing feature of the
temples of the late Cola phase is the increased height
of the gopuras. The five-storeyed gopuras at
Tiruvenkädu, Uyyakondan-Tirumalai,
Tiruccengättãngudi and Kumbhakonam must
belong to this phase. Besides the gopura, pillared
mandapas were also built within the temple complex,
some of them being shaped in the form of a chariot by
the addition of wheels and horses and elephants.
Generally speaking, the characteristics of the early
and late Cola temples are shared by Pandya monuments of
the respective periods, though minor variations are
present in them.
The next stage of development is, however, seen only
in the temples built under the Vijayanagar rulers. The
Vijayanagar kings not only built many new edifices, but
made many additions to the already existing temples.
Such additions are to be found in many places, the most
noteworthy among them being Kancipuram, Tiruvannämalai,
Chidambaram, Kumbhakonam,
Madurai, Srirangam, Vellore, etc. The mandapas
become large and conspicuous adjuncts during this
period due to the multiplication and elaboration of
religious rituals and ceremonial observances. The
Kalyãnamandapa, Sopãnatmandapa,
Davanamandapa, Sndpanamandapa,
Alañkãramandapa, etc., are the usual mandapas
in addition to the ardha, mukha and mahã mandapas
of earlier times. Some of these mandapas are, however,
not entirely unknown under the late Colas. A few of
them were built outside the temple circuit but not much
away from it. These mandapas are essentially pillared
halls, open or closed, and contain either a shrine or a
raised platform over a huge tortoise either in the
centre or behind. They are also notable for their
pillars which are rich in sculptural work and to which
are attached riders on horse or lion or yãli. The
fluted type of simple pillars becomes rare and huge and
monolithic ones are often seen. They have ornamental
brackets forming their capitals, below each of which is
a pendant. This pendant has been in many examples
elaborated into a 'volute which terminates as an
inverted lotus bud.'
The niches in the walls are not surmounted by
torãnas as in Pallava and Cola temples but have a
simple pañjara design over them. What is more, the
niches are empty, without any image in them. Their old
functional character has been lost and they remain a
simple ornamental design on the exterior of the wall.
The increase in the height of the gopuras and in the
number of prãkaras is yet another feature. The
gopuras are generally sevenstoreyed and are large
and tall, especially in the Pandya region. The most
typical gopuras of this period are to be found at
Kañcipuram, Srirangam, Chidambram and Tiruvannamalai.
These are rich with architectural designs like salas,
karnakutas and alpanasikas rather than sculptural
decoration.
The Vijayanagar mode of architecture was continued
by the Nayak rulers of Madurai. In the temples
renovated or rebuilt by them, as the ones at Madurai, Rãmesvaram and
Tirunelveli, the corbels in the pillars show at their
ends a plantain-flower-like motif. The gopuras continue
to be slender and tall, the typical example being the
Vatapatrasayi gopura at Srivilliputtur which is
eleven-storeyed. The corridors in these temples, unlike
those of earlier periods, are provided with ceilings
which are at times painted.
Sculpture
The art of sculpture like that of architecture has a
continuous history in the Tamil country and during the
course of its development it has, even within the
limited geographical area of Tamil Nad, shown more than
one regional trait. As the advent of stone for purposes
of art does not seem to antedate the beginning of the
seventh century, it is likely that in the early
centuries images were made of wood or stucco. In a few
of the South Indian Temples the main deity in the
sanctum sanctorum even today is made either in wood or
in stucco and this probably is only a survival of the
old practice. Due to their impermanent nature such
images have not survived. As a result of this it is not
possible to trace the sculptural history of the region
from the period of the Sangam classics in the light of
extant examples.
It is in the early rock-cut caves of the Pallavas
that one encounters for the first time the earliest
extant specimens of Tamilian stone carving. But even
here, with the sole exception of the Lalitankura
Pallavesvaragriha at Tiruchiräppalli, the other
rock-hewn caves of Mahëndravarman I are devoid of
much plastic decoration. Sculptures in these caves
mostly consist of a pair of dvãrapãlas
guarding the entrances and almost invariably leaning on
their clubs; and a glance at their types in different
caves would indicate the successful attempts made by
the Pallava craftsmen in perfecting physiognomy. When
compared with the simplicity and paucity of sculptures
in the Mahendra type of caves, the carving of many
figures in the caves and monoliths of Narasimhavarman I
and Paramesvaravarman I is striking.
Stylistically Pallava carvings are characterised by
a naturalism in pose and an attenuated physiognomy. In
fact the human figure is the pivot of Pallava
sculptural art. In it the development of lines into
contours and the manner in which the contours merge
with the lines can be seen. By ignoring smaller
anatomical details the Pallava craftsman have idealised
and generalised human anatomy. A taller and somewhat
oval-shaped face, double chin and flat nose are the
major traits. Ornamental decorations and costumes
are kept to the minimum. In a large number of specimens
the yajñopavita is carried over the right arm,
though this is not a very dependable feature for
purposes of dating. When the images represent deities,
they are endowed with their weapons and
attributes, which are either held by them
naturally in the hands or placed immediately above
them.
The different iconographic types met with among the
Pallava images indicate the prevalence of syncretistic
trends during the period. The deities shown include
Harihara, Ardhanäri, Trimurti-Ekapada, Subrahmanya
as Brahma-Sasta, etc., not to mention the different
forms of Siva and Visnu. It is somewhat strange that
Ganesa makes his debut only in the structural temple of
Rãjasimha at Kañcipuram, his images at Vallam
and Mahabalipuram being probably only later additions.
His cult, along with that of the Saptamätrkas
appears to be a Calukyan derivative. When the Pallavas
were engaged in such a prolific sculptural activity in
the Tondaimamandalam and in the regions immediately to
the south of it, the Pandyas in the extreme south were
busy making their own contributions. Stylistically and
in decorative details, in conception and in execution,
the Pandya carvings are not much different from the
Pallava reliefs and appear to be just another edition
of the Pallava art, though in the realm of iconography
it seems to strike a slightly different note. The
provision of a mrdanga instead of a vina for
Vinãdhara Daksinamurti in the monolithic
excavation at Kalugumalai and the decoration of Visnu
with cannavira - an ornament usually associated with
goddesses and minor gods only - at Kunnakkudi are
instances in point.
With the revival of the Cola empire under
Vijayälaya and the building of numerous structural
temples throughout the Tamil country, we enter upon a
new era of sculptural activity. In some of the earliest
Cola and Pandya temples sculptural decoration is
restricted and the value of plain space on walls is
appreciated. But this was only a passing phase and the
tendency to decorate niches and other parts of the
shrine with radiant carvings asserted itself soon.
Sculpture under the Colas is relieved of its
architectonic context and it may even be said that it
is "subsidiary to architecture ". The style may be
characterised as "fluent" thanks to the continuous
experience in the art of stone-cutting from about 600
A.D. The striking attenuation of the Pallava period is
replaced now by very subtle rhythmic quality and, what
is more, Cola sculptures are pleasingly delicate in
outline. A flat upper torso, protuberance on the knees
and a soft and supple form are some of the notable
physiognomical characteristics shared by a large number
of Cola specimens. The humanism and freedom of pose are
the two significant features that elevate Cola carvings
to the status of great art. They are endowed with
naturalistic and elaborate treatment of decorative
details. While these details are suggested in Pallava
images by soft lines which often merge in the modeling,
they are in bold and emphatic lines in the carvings of
the period of Colas. Mention should be made here of
details like katisutra, hara, kanti, etc., which are
recognisably more pronounced in early Cola images.
Again it is in sculptures of this period that the
skandamala (shoulder tassel) appears for the first
time.
It is rather difficult to speak of the general
characteristics of late Cola sculptures as they display
interesting variations in style and decorative details.
More than one school of late Cola sculpture appears to
have persisted, one preserving the classical traditions
of the early period and the rest attempting to
conventionalise in varying degrees in anticipation of
grotesque stylisation that was to characterise the
future. The tendency to elaborate and "improve", a
feature noticed in architecture, is extended to the
decorative details of the images.
The composition is generally large, and subordinate
figures are seen within the niche, unlike the early
Cola examples where they flank the devakosta. Prabha -
arch - is noticed behind the head of the principal
figures in many of the upper tier sculptures in
temples. Generally the images are in bold relief,
though round ones are not wanting. Figures are shown
frontally and profiles are rare. Some of the specimens
of the period are poor in depth of conception and
formal and weak in their presentation of themes. The
torso becomes thick and squatty, unlike its elegant and
natural shape in early Cola sculptures. The
under-garment is invariably brought down below the
knees and it encumbers the effect of the modelling of
the limbs.
The decline and fall of the Cola empire had an
inevitable impact on the art of the Tamil country, as
it amounted to the withdrawal of a powerful patronising
agency. However, the rise of the Vijayanagar rulers
farther north and their eventual supremacy over
TamilNad were welcome phenomena with the resultant
encouragement to various arts.
The sculptural art of the Vijayanagar period
commands one's attention not so much for its aesthetic
qualities as for its prodigious output and the diverse
themes it chose to represent. The sculptures are formal
and rigid and lack the naturalness and softness of
earlier periods. The pose is stiff and the face becomes
expressionless, The nose becomes pointed and the cheeks
are vertically grooved. The elaboration of draperies,
ornaments and other decorative devices, started during
the late Cola period, is continued now with greater
vigour. Tilak, the mark on the forehead, not found in
early periods, makes its debut in Vijayanagar
carvings.
Thematically a very significant introduction of the
period is the Ganga-Yamuna motif. This relates to two
female figures in bold relief on both sides of the
entrance under the gopura of the temple, one of them
representing the river goddess Ganga and the other
Yamuna, both on their vahanas. From the mouth of the
vahana rises a thick plant. It comes round the figure
and rises above with involute circles in which are
sculptural reliefs of the ten incarnations of Visnu.
This practice of representing the river goddesses at
the entrances was in vogue in North India from the
Gupta period onwards but was introduced in the south
only under the Vijayanagara rulers.
Chola
Bronzes
This account will not be complete without at least a
brief sketch of the art of bronze casting for which
the Tamil country was famous. Metal images have
been cast throughout the centuries under the patronage
of different dynasties in the north, south, east and
west, but nowhere does it seem to have registered such
an acme of development as it did under the Colas. A few
Agamic texts and the contemporary practice among the
sthapatis indicate two modes of casting icons - the
hollow and the solid methods. The figure of a female,
identified as Mother Goddess and discovered at
Adichanallur is the oldest extant metal icon in the
Tamil country. It is small in size and has been taken
to be at least 3,000 years old. A few Buddhist metal
icons discovered at Amaravati and Kaverippumpattinam
and Buddhapad in Andhradesa and assignable to the early
centuries of the Christian era reveal that the metallic
art was already flourishing in South India.
These traditions of the early period in the realm of
art were continued by the Pallavas who held hegemony
over parts of the southern Andhradesa and the whole of
the Tondaimandalam and even the region up to the Kaveri
in the south. A few scholars tend to believe that the
art of bronze casting was either unknown to the
Pallavas or at least had not attained great heights
under them and that for all practical purposes the
history of the art of bronzes in Tamil Nad begins with
the Colas.
Now it is difficult to wholly accept this, as we
know for certain that this art was flourishing under
the Satavahanas and Ikshvakus and hence the Pallavas
might also have been aware of it. Considering the fact
that under the early Colas the output of metal icons
was prodigious in quantity and unparalleled in quality,
it is difficult to assume that this art had developed
to that extent within a short time after its
introduction in the Tamil country. Of particular
interest in this connection is an inscription of a
certain Abhimana Siddhi (who seems to be either a
contemporary of or a ruler anterior to Dantivarman
Pallavamalla) in the Vaikunthapperumal temple at
Kanchipuram making reference to the gift of one
thousand pon (gold) obviously for the making of a
golden plate for offering bali and also for a padimam.
The padimam here could only mean an image made out of
the gifted gold and hence a metal icon. Apart from some
of the Pallava characteristics revealed by a few
bronzes, this inscription would show that metal art was
not unknown to the Pallavas. A Tripurantaka in a
private collection now in Ahmedabad, a Vishapaharana
from Kilappudanur in the Tanjore District, a
Natarãja from Nallur in the same district are a
few of the icons with obvious Pallava features and
noted for graceful and simple modelling. A Maitreya
from Melaiyur and a Visnu in the Trivandrum Museum may
also be included in this list.
A large number of specimens belong to the period of
transition from the Pallava to the Cola period and the
first two or three decades of the Cola period. This is
the period which witnessed the highest water mark in
the art of bronze casting, and in the light of recent
and penetrating studies it is possible to discern
different phases in sequence in the development of the
art.
The Visnu from Tiruchcherai, Chandikesvara from
Tiruvenkadu, Kirata and Arjuna from Tiruvetkalam are
the most representative of the flowering phase of the
early Cola period. In modelling treatment they offer
valuable links between earlier images and the clearly
datable icons of the subsequent period. The skandhamala
(shoulder tassel), which is not generally noticed in
images of the Pallava period, is invariably seen in
Cola bronzes. Similar and interesting changes are found
in many ornaments and decorative devices, including
armlets, udarabandha, necklaces, katistra, loops and
tassels, etc. The shape of the yajñopavita, i.e.
its running over the right arm, is continued in a few
images but it ceases to be a dependable stylistic
feature in the Cola period.
Stylistic characteristics, useful as they are for
any chronological classification of images, are not
always useful and at times even prove to be deceptive
on account of the persistence of certain modes for
quite a long time. It is in this connection that a few
inscriptions prove to be useful, affording exact dates
in which the icons were cast and endowed and thereby
enabling one to study the features of dated bronzes and
compare them with images with identical features to
arrive at their probable dates. Quite a number of
well-known and masterly examples of the Cola bronzes
have now been dated with as much accuracy as
possible.
Numerous are the inscriptions making mention of the
dedication of bronze images to temples under successive
rulers, but unfortunately not all of them have
survived. Special mention must be made of the
references to a host of deities in metal in the Tanjore
inscriptions of Rajaraja of which none, with possibly
the single exception of a Tripurantaka, is still
extant. It is difficult to exaggerate the importance of
a few dated bronzes, as they indicate art forms and
norms of the periods of their making and show how
stylistic features are not always wholly
trustworthy.
Of the many superlative icons in the
Umämahesvara temple at Konerirajapuram, Tanjore
District, a Vrshabhavahana Tripurantaka and Ganapati
are datable between 959 A.D. and 977 A.D. on the
authority of an inscription in the same temple. The
reference to gifts to an image of Kuttaperumal and his
consort in the Vriddhagirisvara temple at Vriddhachalam
by Sembiyan Mahädëvi in an inscription in
that temple reveals that the now extant images of
Natãraja and his consort there were made in or
before 981 A.D.
Of the many bronzes unearthed at Tiruvenkädu in
the Tanjore district a Vrshabhavähana was
dedicated in 1011 A.D. and his consort in 1012 A.D. and
the characteristics of these succinctly illustrate the
bronze style during the last years of
Rãjaräja I. An inscription of the same ruler
dated in his 28th year refers to gifts to an image of
Adavallãn (Natarãja) which may be a reference
to either of the two figures of the god in the temple;
obviously this was dedicated in 1013 A.D. Another
epigraph speaks of the dedication of Bhikshatana in the
30th year of Rajadhiraja I corresponding to 1048 A.D.
while yet another inscription reveals that an
Ardhanãrisvara was endowed in or before 1047 A.D.
That other undated Tiruvenkadu bronzes like the
Bhairava and Kalyanasundara should also belong to about
the same period is apparent. All these icons admirably
reflect the heavy and stolid forms of contemporary
stone sculpture.
Generally speaking, the bronze icons reflect the
form and style of contemporary sculpture in stone. This
is true also of iconography and decorative details. The
Nataraja image which is rare in Pallava times (found
only in the Siyamangalam cave, Dharmaraja ratha at
Mahabalipuram, Kailasanatha, Muktisvara and
Matangesvara temples at Kanchipuram) is frequently
represented in the Cola period. It is in the beginning
of the early Cola period that the Anandatandava mode of
dance gets crystallized and is shown alike in stone and
metal. In the representation of this and other themes
and in general execution and details, minor albeit
interesting variations are found between the specimens
wrought in the metropolitan art centres in the
Cholamandalam and the products in the other peripheral
regions like the Pandya and Kongu countries. The
reversed posture of Nataraja in the Pandya realm, known
as marukal tandavam, is particularly interesting.
The metal art was zealously patronised during the
later Cola and Vijayanagar periods as well; but
examples of these periods, like contemporary stone
carvings, are devoid of life. They are much
conventionalised and the dynamic and rhythmic movement
characteristic of early examples is now replaced by
mathematical schematism.
Discussion
C. L. Fabri, M. S. Kesavan, N.
Vanamamalai.
Fabri questioned the view that "the advent of
stone for purposes of art does not seem to antedate the
beginning of the seventh century", since at
Nagarjunakonda and other Buddhist cities stone had been
used in the second century B.C. Moreover, there were
Buddhist bronzes in Nagarjunakonda and other places. At
Nagapattinam half-finished statues have been found, and
it would not be incorrect to suggest that Nagapattinam
had exported vast numbers of statues even to the
northern cities - the Budhhist cities.
Mahalingam: At the point referred to I was
discussing the date of the first Pallava monument in
stone. It is true that in eastern Andhradesa and in
northern and western India we have rock-cut structures,
but they were Buddhist and Jam in origin. So far as
Hindu architecture is concerned, we find that
stone seems to have been used for the first time only
during the days of Mahendravarman. Therefore there is a
time gap of nearly eight centuries, or even more.
However that may be, the fact remains that cut stone
was used for Hindu monuments relatively late in the
Tamil country.
Kesavan raised the question of the figures of
Nataraja described by the speaker and the respective
forms they took in Pallava and Cola times.
Mahalingam replied that there were stone
figures of Nataraja in Pallava times (such as those at
Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram), but that bronze statues
did not appear until later. Vanamamalai asked a number
of questions about the continuity of certain trends in
art and sculpture in South India and about possible
outside influences.
Vannamalai: Can we trace any continuity in
art and sculpture from the pre-historic period to the
times of the Pallavas and Colas?
Mahalingam: This question concerns the
relationship between the art of South India from the
seventh century onwards and earlier art as revealed by
the Adichanallur and Arikamedu findings. It is too soon
to say anything about continuity, because we do not yet
know much about Adichanallur and the findings there.
From Arikamedu we have only terracotta items. The art
of the Pallava period consists of stone sculpture and
icons. Hence it is rather difficult to say much about
the continuity.
Vannamalai: What is the relationship between
the early Pandyan sculptures such as Kazhugumalai and
early Pallava sculptures. Is there any
intermingling?
Mahalingam: There is not much difference
between the art of Kazhugumalai and the Pallava art of
Mahabalipuram. But in some respects, with regard to
certain sculptures and motifs found in these
architectural monuments, we find some extraneous
influences (such as the Chalukya influence in the
Pandiyan country), which we do not find earlier.
Vannamalai: Can traces of Buddhism and
Jainism be noticed in our art before the seventh
century A.D.?
Mahalingam: With regard to the period before
the time of the Pallavas, there are no extant
monuments. We have literature only, and from the nature
of this evidence it is not possible to draw any
conclusions.
Vannamalai: Are there any traces of Greek or
Roman influence in the early art and architecture?
Mahalingam: There is some Greek and Roman
influence on early art. In a few places at
Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati we find some sculptures,
the characteristics of which are not indigenous.
