NATIONS & NATIONALISM
Civic Nationalism & Ethno Nationalism
- False Opposites?
"...So-called civic nations like France, Canada, and the United
States may have become relatively open societies that offer
citizenship rights to all peoples, but they did not start out
that way. In each case, they began with restricted core
communities -- be they white or Catholic or British or European
-- and expanded outward. As a result, when we urge nationalists,
say in Bosnia or Kosovo, to follow our example and found nations
solely on the basis of shared political principles, we are in
fact urging them to do something that we never did ourselves..."
Bernard Yack, July 2000
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False Opposites in Nationalism: An
Examination of the Dichotomy of Civic Nationalism and Ethnic Nationalism in
Modern Europe - Margareta Mary Nikolas, 1999 |
"This study is an examination of the exercise of
nationalism as the assertion and/or reassertion of the mutual
(political) sovereignty of a community in the form of a
nation-state. My thesis aims to explore two theoretically
different routes and forms of exercise of nationalism focusing
specifically on modern Europe. These two routes are civic
nationalism and ethnic nationalism. This classical dichotomy, I
agree, is a misleading division for though the two are
theoretically separate, in practice they are collaborators in
the journey towards nationhood and in the pursuit of the
establishment of a nation-state.For
nationalism to be successful it must involve an interplay of the
principles of both civic nationalism and ethnic nationalism,
rather than these components acting as mutually exclusive
concepts. The nature of this interplay will be examined
throughout the thesis and the collaboration will be explored via
the two competing perspectives: that held by the modernists and
that proposed by the ethnicists, both operating within the
framework of modernity. The key distinction between the two is
their focus and the point at which they identify a group
imagining themselves as a community and society. Their
respective cases will be critically examined with respect to
those elements that determine that an interplay occurs....
No exercise of nationalism is the same, but
they are all an exercise of the one phenomenon. Nationalism is
an interplay of civic nationalism and ethnic nationalism and all
their characteristics. The civic and the ethnic demonstrate two
broad categories of concentration, but neither is exclusive.
They are analytically different, but each nation, or group of
people that consider themselves a nation and practise
nationalism, carry elements of both. Just as the ethnicist and
modernist theories are not complete on their own, so too their
correlated ideals of the ethnic and the civic are not complete
either. Neither is sufficient on its own to forge a nation. A
civic nationalism must crystallise the ethnic components of its
members in order to provide vigour and appeal to the
nationalism, and thus be able to succeed onwards towards the
establishment and perpetuation of nationhood. Likewise, ethnic
nationalism must institutionalise to realise its goals.
Ethnicity transmitted by culture carries with it the tools and
in some cases the foundations of new nations they do not work on
their own however and are not the root of the nationalism.
Nationalism is a modern phenomenon that should not exclude the
persistence of ethnicity as a popular motivation that fuels
it..."
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The Nation in Ukraine's History Textbooks:
A Civic, Ethnic or Cultural Cast? - Jan Germen Janmaat |
"In our increasingly smaller world of internet, call centres in India, distant
travels and ongoing European integration it is easy to overlook countervailing trends that have
occurred in the past 15 years. Not far from Western Europe, new countries have come into being,
creating new borders that have posed obstacles to travelling, international trade and the
transfer of information and that can thus be said to have made the world larger instead of
smaller. Of course, we are referring here to the disintegration of Czechoslovakia,
Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union into a plethora of new, much smaller states. Many of these states
have never been independent before. Faced with unaccustomed and therefore unpredictable populations, the governing elites of these states are likely to feel insecure
about the continued existence of their states as independent entities. They deem it
essential to equip their populations with feelings of patriotism and loyalty to the state and its
institutions, as that would, in their view, be the only effective vaccination against popular unrest
and political instability."
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The Myth of the Civic State:
Hans Kohn Revisited: Civic and Ethnic States in Theory and Practice - Taras
Kuzio, Yale University April 2000 |
"..(the) division of nationalism
into ‘good Western civic’ and ‘bad Eastern ethnic’ reflects both
an intellectual arrogance and an idealisation of pure civic and
ethnic states that do not exist in practice...Contemporary Eastern nationalism looks and feels peculiar to those
in the West because of a time gap between the ethnic nationalism
that permeated the West in the early stages of its national state
formation and the ethnic nationalism found in some parts of the East
today. As Canovan says, ‘It is unfortunately the case that a nation
that is peaceful, secure and a favourite site for liberal
democratic politics now usually has a past that no liberal
democracy can comfortably look into’.. To what degree can we
historically define Western states as ‘civic’ if they disbarred
people from integration into their communities on grounds of gender,
race or ethnicity, all of which occurred prior to the twentieth
century. Using Kymlicka’s definition Kohn’s five states could not be
defined as ‘civic’..."
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Ethnic or Civic Nation?:
Theorising the American Case - Eric Kaufmann
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"...The United States has often been viewed by ethnicity and nationalism
scholars as the quintessential civic nation historically defined by its
commitment to eighteenth century liberal ideology. This paper takes issue
with such a perspective. Instead, the United States, for nearly its entire
existence, is shown to be an ethnic nation characterized by non-conformist
Protestantism and pre-Norman, Anglo-Saxon genealogy. This self-styled
'American' ethnie sought to reshape the nation in its own image and saw its
destiny in Puritan, millennial terms. Faced with large flows of non-British
immigrants, the 'Americans' employed techniques of Anglo-conformity in an
attempt to transform the newcomers into 'WASP's. When this process was
viewed as inadequate, movements of cultural nationalism and immigration
restriction developed which resulted in the institution of a set of
boundary-defending practices that began in the 1920's and continued into the
1960's. Developments in the 'West' have since ushered in the era of liberal
civic nationhood in which the U.S. has participated. In this manner,
America's shift from ethnic to civic nationalism is not exceptional, but
instead reflects a broader value shift in Western culture..."
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Ethnic - Civic
Nationalism - Bibiliography - Eric Kaufmann |
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Supra Ethnic Nationalism - the Case
of Eriteria - Redie Bereketeab, 2002 |
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The Myth
of Civic Nationalism - Bernard Yack, July 2000 |
"...So-called civic nations like France, Canada, and the United
States may have become relatively open societies that offer
citizenship rights to all peoples, but they did not start out
that way. In each case, they began with restricted core
communities -- be they white or Catholic or British or European
-- and expanded outward. As a result, when we urge nationalists,
say in Bosnia or Kosovo, to follow our example and found nations
solely on the basis of shared political principles, we are in
fact urging them to do something that we never did ourselves..."
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Ethno-nationalisms in Europe - Xavier Crettiez, Professor of
Political Science at the University of Versailles St Quentin, 2002
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"...Ethno-nationalism is about all the communities that consider
themselves as “little nations” without states, communities
wishing for some international recognition or a greater autonomy
from the states they belong to. So, I will not deal with regions
the identity of which is not based on ethnic claims but rather
on economic grounds, as it is the case with many German länders.
Such is the case also with many Euro-regions bereft of any
identity claim since they gather together a few decentralized
communities on the sole basis of trade (for instance the
cooperation agreement between the German Bade-Wurtenberg and the
French Rhône-Alpes County in 1986). Far from it, the Basque or
the Lombard country, Ulster, Corsica, Flanders, are regions
which claim cultural as well as linguistic, political and
economic specificity. This claim for peculiarity very often
entails difficult relationships with the center and accusing the
“Oppressing State” is a constant rhetoric among nationalists.
The “imperialist” state is charged with a supposed indifference
towards its peripheries, and is accused of exploiting the
resources of these regions, or, on the contrary, of imposing too
heavy a taxation..."
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Nationalism and the
Case of Distorted Liberalism - Ofer Castro Cassif |
"...Contemporary scholars of nationalism often claim that
nationalism is a protean doctrine, as distinct nationalisms
define their relevant nations as such by employing different
criteria: in some cases the nation is defined as a linguistic
group, sometimes as a cultural body, a race, a collective with
common history and so forth. However, it seems that the common
denominator of all nationalisms, and therefore the nature of
nationalism in general, applies to their conception of the
nation as a sort of extended family...by ‘nationalism’ I do not
refer to theories of nationalism but to actual nationalist
movements and thinkers. ... I believe, there
is a big gap between ‘real-world’ nationalism and the understanding of
nationalism
by ‘academics sympathetic to it’.
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Ethno Nationalism &
Fiji - Ayuz Nizar Mukadam, September 2005 |
"Fiji has been noted for its problems with racial tensions.
Previous analyses have focused on the role of the Fijian elite
in propagating racial tensions against the Indo- Fijian
community. Therefore, this thesis endeavoured to find out, how
do ordinary Fijians feel about ethno-nationalism? Are they
active players in spreading such
sentiments?"
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Anthony D: Smith
in a lecture at the University of Copenhagen, Amager,
May 2004
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"... When is a nation?
Nationalists traditionally argue that (their) nations are timeless
phenomena that have existed since time immemorial. Theoretical
approaches to the phenomenon of nationalism could be divided into perennialist, modernist and ethno-symbolic. Perennialists argue that
nations have existed for a very long time, though they take
different shapes at different points in history. The dominant
perspective on nationalism in history and the social sciences is,
however, the modernist one, which treats nations as modern
constructs, the products of the new conditions that have changed the
world since the Enlightenment and the French and American
revolutions. But modernist views are as theoretically problematic
and historically questionable as the perennialist perspective, which
they supplanted. An alternative
‘ethno-symbolic’ approach reveals the various forms of the nation in
history, and seeks to supplement the rather linear historical
question, ‘when is the nation?’ with the more recurrent and
sociological problem of ‘when is a nation?’.
The latter question invites us to delineate different starting
points and patterns of nation-formation in terms of ideal-type
constructs, while an emphasis on the role of ethnic myths, memories,
symbols and traditions helps us to explore the processes and routes
by which nations are formed in different epochs and continents."
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Two Perspectives
on the Relationship of Ethnicity to Nationalism: Comparing Gellner and Smith
- Huseyin Iskisal , 2002 |
"...the first modern states, namely Britain and France, (had)
been founded around a dominant ethnie. Thus, because Britain and
France were the dominant colonialist powers, they influenced their colonies as well as other communities with their
Anglo-French state-nation model. ...historical priority of the Anglo-French
state-nation model
presented a basic model for the rest of the world how a national society and
national state should be formed and sustained..."
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Difference without Dichotomy: An Examination
of Nationalism in Ireland and Quebec, since 1780 - Catherine Frost, McMaster
University 30 May 2003
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"A review of nationalist thinking in Ireland and Quebec over
the past two
hundred years reveals two contrasting formulations of the nationalist
argument associated with distinct historical periods. One formulation
(prominent from the late eighteenth to the mid-nineteenth century) focused on
securing “good government” through knowledgeable governors with a stake in
the affairs of a given population. The other (prominent from the mid-nineteenth
to the mid-twentieth century) focused on defining and upholding a “national
character” that would distinguish and sustain this population. This paper
argues that despite their initial similarity to civic/ethnic or
political/cultural
dichotomies of nationalism, these two formulations are in fact closely related;
that they share a common concern with representation; and that the second
formulation grew out of the first as the national concept was put into practice.
Rather than a dichotomy of nationalism, then, this evolution suggests a
thesis/antithesis relationship and raises the possibility of an eventual
synthesis
in nationalism."
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Dravidian Movement in Tamil Nadu:
The Views of Marguerite Ross Barnett - Sachi Sri Kantha, 2007 |
"...Having postulated a conflict between ‘primordial’ and
‘civil’ sentiments it is an easy step for politicians and social scientists
to argue for the substitution of one (civil ties) for the other (primordial
ties)...
But is one form of nationalism traditional and the
other modern? .. What are the distinguishing characteristics of the two
nationalisms? Why does one nationalism, with its attendant locus of political
identity develop and not the other? What is the relevant level of analysis of
these two nationalisms? In the process of modernization will territorial
nationalism inevitably replace cultural nationalism? If modernity and cultural
nationalism are defined as in opposition to each other how do we understand the
resurgence of cultural nationalism (and the definition of cultural variables as
the relevant determinants of political identity) in many post-industrial
societies?.."
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Ethno-nationalism from a psychiatric
perspective - The Mass Psychology of Ethnonationalism by Dusan Kecmanovic Plenum
Press, New York 1996. - Review by Jasna JozElic & Gorana Ognjenovic |
"... What forces make people so committed to their
ethno-national groups to a degree where they ignore everyone else’s
concerns, the rights and interests of people of other ethnicities? What is
the psychological and anthropological basis for ethno-nationalism? Why and
how do people attain and follow blindly nationalist attitudes and beliefs?
Nationalism is followed blindly, argued for academically, and ‘exercised’
because it defines the most suitable reaction to social pressure. It
provides an opportunity for coping with feeling of personal insufficiency,
as well as social insufficiency – an inability of getting along with the
ones who are different from oneself. Maybe its most appealing characteristic
lies in its capability of providing an arena on a grass roots level for a
socially approved exercise for aggression of various kinds. It is the
perfect instrument of escape from ones own individuality and the possibility
of redefining self-worth by ones dissolution into the masses... The final
point Kecmanovic draws in this landscape of eternal madness is that as an
idea nationalism is generally an elite phenomenon while in practice it is a
mainly mass phenomenon..."
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Ethno-Nationalism versus
Civic-Nationalism - Sri Lanka’s Predicament
- Professor Laksiri Fernando, 25
June 2007 |
"..What I mean by civic nationalism is that kind of
nationalism which could unite all or greater majority of the citizens of a
polity irrespective of race, ethnicity, religion or any other such
distinction. Any other such distinction can be language, caste or even
gender..."
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'Dominant Ethnicity' and the 'Ethnic-Civic' Dichotomy in
the work of A. D. Smith.
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"Arguably the fulcrum of Anthony Smith's research is
the ethnie-nation link. One axis of this debate is represented in the early
contributions to this special issue, namely, what are ethnies, when did they
arise, and what has been their historic relationship to nations. A second -
perhaps more contemporary - offshoot of this thinking is the role played by
ethnicity within nations in the so-called 'modern' period up to the present
time. This is the main problematic with which this article will concern
itself. Within this framework, two strands of research recommend themselves.
These include a) the place of dominant-group ethnicity within contemporary
nations; and b) the nature of the 'ethnic versus civic nation' conceptual
dichotomy and the dialectic between these two ways of constructing
nationalist arguments..."
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Nationalism, East and West: Civic and Ethnic Conceptions of Nationhood -Association
for the Study of Ethnicity and Nationalism,
18th Annual Conference,
April 2008
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"It has long been standard in the field of nationalism
studies to classify nations according to which principle serves to unify the
nation. The distinction between the Western, political type of nationalism
and the Eastern, genealogical variety of nationalism as systematised by Hans
Kohn in 1944 has been used, extended, and adjusted by scholars to
conceptualise a framework of “inclusive” nationalism based on citizenship
and territory and “exclusive” nationalism based on common ethnic ties and
descent. This conference seeks to assess the continuing relevance of this
dichotomy in its various forms: its contribution to theoretical work on
nationalism, its usefulness for historical interpretation, and its value for
contemporary policy-making."
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Ethno nationalism in the Contemporary
World. Walker Connor and the study of nationalism, Ed. Daniele Conversi: Review
by Stephen Barbour |
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On Ethnosymbolists,
Primordialists, and Modernists - John Breuilly Interview for H-Nationalism |
"I do not think the distinction civic/ethnic is very useful if seen in terms
of different types of nationalism which is used to group specific cases.
That is how it originally worked in the form Hans Kohn presented it, of
western and eastern nationalism. For powerful arguments against the
distinction used in that way there is an article by Oliver Zimmer, as well
as an essay by Rogers Brubaker republished in his book Ethnicity without
Groups."
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Ethno-Nationalism during Democratic
Transition in Bulgaria: Political Pluralism as an Effective Remedy for Ethnic
Conflict - Bistra-Beatrix Volgyi |
"Following the collapse of communism in the 1990s in Central and South-
Eastern Europe, the
region has not only undergone a difficult period of economic and political
transition, but also has
witnessed the rise of ethno-nationalism in several states, along with problems
of national identity,
state formation and the exclusion (or extermination as in the Yugoslav case) of
minorities.
Nationalism may adopt a variety of forms simultaneously - ethnic, cultural or
civic, where either
one of these forms or a mixture of elements from the three, may predominate in a
state over time,
influenced by politico-economic realities, elite behavior, party coalitions,
international interests
and ideological influences, as well as societal attitudes. Nationalism in its
ethnic variant has led to
the alienation and violation of minorities’ rights, and its supporters have
advocated the creation of
ethnically homogenous states. Proponents of cultural nationalism have attempted
the assimilation
of national minority ‘low cultures’ into the dominant national ‘high culture.’
On the other hand,
civic nationalism has mobilized people in Eastern European states towards the
common goals of
democratization and protection of human rights (individual or group/minority
rights). The
concern over the spread of ethno-nationalism in various countries of the region
has not been, as it
is commonly argued, a result of the unleashing of historical primordial forces
previously ‘frozen’
by communism, but rather has been invoked by political elites to fill an
ideological vacuum or to
mobilize public support in times of political, economic or national identity
crises in a quest for
the conquest or preservation of political power.."
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Ethnonationalism: Fears, Dangers,
and Policies in the Post-Communist World |
In the post-Communist world as in centuries past,
ethnonationalism has played an important part in both domestic and
international politics. Its role has been evident in the outbreak of violent
conflicts, the creation of new states, and the revision and attempted
revision of interstate borders. Ethnic doctrines and perceptions have also
influenced, and in some cases dominated, political outlooks and have
affected decision-making on security and other issues.Specifically,
ethnonationalism has fueled the fears and suspicions that currently beset
relations between the Russian Federation, the newly independent states of
the former Soviet Union, and the states of eastern Europe. As a result,
ethnonationalism is widely perceived as one of the major threats to security
in Europe today.
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