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TAMIL HERITAGE...
the Tamils are an ancient people
Chera Dynasty
Introduction
The Chera dynasty was one of the ancient
Tamil dynasties that ruled
southern India from ancient times until around the fifteenth century CE.
The Early Cheras ruled over the
Coimbatore,
Karur and
Salem Districts in South India, which now forms part of the modern day
Tamil
Nadu (Kongu
Nadu). The other two major Tamil dynasties were the
Cholas in the eastern
Coromandel Coast and
Pandyas in the south central peninsula. These dynasties began ruling
before the
Sangam era (300 BCE - 200 CE) during which
Tamil language,
arts and
literature flourished.
The Sangam Chera capital was
Vanchi Muthur (otherwise called Karuvur, modern
Karur).[1].
Chera territory included western and south area of Tamilnadu and also
areas close to Malai Nadu or hill
country (modern Kerala]). Chera rulers warred frequently with their
neighbouring kingdoms. They sometimes inter-married with the families of the
rival kings to form political alliances.
Throughout the reign of the Cheras, trade continued to bring prosperity to
the Tamil Country (part of which
is modern north Kerala), with spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems being
exported to Egypt, Rome, Greece, Phoenicia, Arabia, Mesopotamia and
Persia.
Evidence for extensive foreign trade from ancient times is available
throughout the Malabar coast, from the Roman, Greek and Arabic coins
unearthed from Kollam, Kodungallur, Eyyal (near Trissur) in Northern Kerala.
Muziris, has been referenced by ancient writers, such as the author of the
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea to be an inland port probably near
Kodungallur. Sangam Cheran coins and inscriptions are found in
Karur,
Erode and
Coimbatore region of modern
Tamil
Nadu (Kongu
Nadu).
While Cheras had their own religion (Hinduism),
other religious traditions came to this area during the period of the Chera
kings.
Jainism came to
Kongu Nadu by the second century BCE.
 History
In early Chenthamizh literature, the Chera rulers are referred to as
Cheral, Kuttuvan, Irumporai, Kollipurai and Athan. Chera rulers were also
called Kothai or Makothai. The nobility among the Cheras were called
Cheraman in general. The word Kerala, of possible Prakrit origins, does not
appear in
Sangam Literature.
Ashoka's edicts mention an independent dynasty known by the name
Ceraputta, who were outside Ashoka's empire. The unknown author of
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentions Chera as Cerobothra
whose capital is Karur, while
Pliny, the Roman historian of the first century, calls it
Caelobothras. It is believed that religiously the Cheras were Shaivites.[2]
The kings of the dynasty referred to themselves as Vanavar.[3]
Sangam Cheras
The only source available for us regarding the early Chera Kings is the
anthologies of the
Sangam literature. Scholars now generally agree that this literature
belongs to the first few centuries CE.[4]
The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled. The
Sangam literature is full of names of the kings and the princes, and of the
poets who extolled them. Despite a rich literature that depicts the life and
work of these people, these are not worked into connected history so far.
Their capital is stated to be modern
Karur in
Tamilnadu and were also called Kongars.
Pathirruppaththu, the fourth book in the
Ettuthokai anthology mentions a number of Chera Kings of the Chera
dynasty. Each King is praised in ten songs sung by the Court Poet and the
Kings are in the following order:
- Nedum Cheralathan,
- Palyane Chel Kezhu Kuttuvan,
- Kalankai Kanni Narmudi Cheral,
- Kadal Pirakottiya Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan,
- Attu Kottu Pattu Cheralathan,
- Chelva Kadunko Azhi Athan,
- Thakadur Erintha Perum Cheral Irumporai,
- Kudako Ilam Cheral Irumporai.
The first two kings were the sons of Uthiyan Cheralathan and Veliyan
Nallini. The third, fourth and fifth kings were sons of Nedum Cheralathan,
while the mother of fourth King (also known as Chenkuttuvan) was Chola
Princess Manikilli. Chelva Kadunko Vazhiyathan was the son of Anthuvan
Cheral Irumporai and Porayan Perumthevi. Perum Cheral Irumporai was the son
of Vazhiyathan and Ilam Cheral Irumporai was the son of a Chera ruler
Kuttuvan Irumporai (son of Mantharan Cheral Irumporai).
Archaeology has also found epigraphic evidence regarding these early
Cheras.[5]
The most important of these is the Pugalur (Aranattarmalai) inscription.
This inscription refers to three generations of Chera rulers Adam Cheral
Irrumporai, his son Perumkadungo, and his son Ilamkadungo. The charter was
issued when Perum Kadungo was the ruler monarch and Ilam Kadungo was
appointed prince. Athan refers only to a crowned King of Chera dynasty who
accepted this title at the time of coronation. Athan Cheral Irumporai was
the son of Perum Cheral Irumporai. It therefore follows that Perumkadungo
was the son of a crowned King of the Chera Dynasty. Perum Kadunko means that
he was the Senior Ko (Senior ruler) of Kadunadu, located in the Tamilnadu
side of the Sahya Mountains.
Purananuru refers to Udiyan Cheral, who probably ruled in the first –
second centuries CE. It is said that he fed the rival armies during the war
of
Mahabharata. Imayavaramban Neduncheralathan, another Sangam age
king claimed to have conquered up to the
Himalayas
and to have inscribed his emblem in the face of the mountains.
Senguttuvan was another famous Chera, whose contemporary
Gajabahu II of
Lanka
according to
Mahavamsa
visited the Chera country.[6]
The early Cheras controlled a large territory of
Kongu Nadu. They also ruled the kodunthamizh regions of
Travancore (Venadu) and the
Malabar (Kuttanadu)
west coast through vassals. They were in contact with the
Satavahanas in the north and with the
Romans and
Greeks.[7]
Trade flourished overseas and there was a considerable exchange of gold and
coins, as seen by archaeological evidence and literature. The Romans brought
vast amounts of gold in exchange of 'Kari' (Pepper) from Malainadu.
[2]
Bhakti era Cheras
Little is known about the Cheras between c. third century CE and the
eight century CE. An obscure dynasty, the
Kalabhras,
invaded the Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled for
around three centuries. They were displaced by the Pallavas and the Pandyas
in the sixth century CE.
A
Pandya ruler, Arikesari Parankusa Maravarman (c.730 – 765CE), mentioned
in a number of Pandya
copper-plate inscriptions, was a prominent ruler during this period. He
claims to have defeated a prominent Chera king. The name of the Chera king
is not known, however from the details of the battles between the Pandya and
the Chera, the Chera territory ceded seems to have included the entire
Malabar and Travancore (Kuttanadu and Venadu) and the southern Pandya
country from
Kanyakumari to
Thirunelveli the seat of the Cheras being in Karur
Kongu Nadu.
The Chera kings took the title of Perumal during this
period and patronised the
Vaishnavite sect. Kulasekara Alwar who ruled in the 8th century became a
devotional Vaishnavite poet. Pallavas also mention in their inscriptions
about their battles with the Cheras.
Pulakesin II, in his
Aihole
inscription mentioned " Pulikesin II, driving the Pallava behind the
forts of Kanchi, reached as far south as the Kaveri river, and there caused
prosperity to the Chola, Chera and Pandya".[8]
In the reign of Pandya Parantaka Nedumjadaiyan (765 – 790), the Cheras
were still in Karur and were a close ally of the
Pallavas. Pallavamalla Nadivarman defeated the Pandya Varaguna with the
help of a Chera king. Cultural contacts between the Pallava court and the
Chera country were common.[9]
The
Saivite saint
Cheraman Perumal and the other is the Vaishnavite saint
Kulasekhara, were famous in the Hindu religious movements. Kulasekhara
became one of the celebrated
Alvars and
his poems came to be called the
Perumal Thirumozhi.
Cheraman Perumal ruled around the eighth and the ninth centuries. In
this Kulasekhara calls himself Kongar Kon (the king of the Kongu
people) hailing from Kollinagar (Karur).
Adi
Shankara was his contemporary. Kongumandala Satakam also says
that Cheraman Perumal went to Kayilai with Sundarar from Kongu Nadu.
Notes
- ^ Nagaswami, R.
(1995).
Roman Karur: A peep into Tamil's past. Brahad Prakashan,
Madras.
- ^ P. 104
Indian Anthropologist: Journal of the Indian Anthropological
Association By Indian Anthropological Association
- ^ P. 15 The
Ācārya, Śakara of Kāladī: A Story By Savita R. Bhave, M. G.
Gyaltsan, Muafá Amīn, 1933- Madugula, I S Madugula
- ^ The age of
Sangam is established through the correlation between the evidence
on foreign trade found in the poems and the writings by ancient
Greek and Romans such as Periplus of the Erythrian Sea. See
Nilakanta Sastri, K.A., History of South India, pp 106
- ^ See report in
Frontline, June/July 2003
[1]
- ^ See
Mahavamsa. Since Senguttuvan (Kadal pirakottiya Vel Kezhu
Kuttuvan) was a contemporary of Gajabahu II he was the Chera King
during 170-185 CE.
- ^ These
foreigners were called Yavana in the ancient times
- ^ See Verse 31
Aihole Inscription of Pulakesi II
- ^ See A
History of South India – pp 146 – 147
References
[The text of this article
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The Chera Coins
- Dr.R.Nagaswamy,
Tamil Arts AcademyThe coinage of the Cheras has not
received the attention it deserves. An attempt is made
here to outline its features.
Aristotle mentions a place called Keras,
identified with the Chera country.(1) The Taitriya
Aranyaka refers to "Cherapada". This is taken to refer
to the Chera country by P. T. Srinivasa Iyangar.(2) B.
Keith also refers to it as the Chera country.(3) It is
not unlikely that the Chera country was known well
enough in the time of Taitriya Aranyaka to be referred
to in it. The Periplus mentions Kerala as
"Cerobothra" while Pliny, the Roman historian of the
first century, calls it Caelobothras. In contemporary
Tamil country, it is invariably referred to as the Chera
country(4) So it is evident that the original name of
the people and country was Chera as mentioned in Tamil
literature and all the foreign notices. K. A. Nilakanta
Sastri places Krala in South Malabar extending upto
Central Travancore. He holds that it also included the
district styled Mushika, Strabo"s "Mausikanos".(5) Asoka
refers to Kelalaputo (also read as Ketalaputo) in his
Girnar inscription.(6) The ending putra in Kelalaputo
etc., denotes the children of the soil."(7)
Cheramans
It is necessary to understand the words
Kelalaputo and Satiyaputo occurring in Asoka"s
inscription. In early Tamil literature the Cheras are
referred to as Cheralas and Cheramans. The word Kerala
does not occur in Sangam works. This is a Prakrit
tradition. However the Kalsi inscription of Asoka gives
the name as Kelaputo standing for Cheraman.(8) The
suffix Puto (Skt. Putra) was assumed by some dynasties
of the South like the Satavahanas who assumed such
titles as vasitti putra, and Gautami putra. The
interesting silver coin of "Vasishti putra Satakai"
bears the Prakrit legend Vasitti putasa Siri Satakanisa
on the observe. On the reverse the legend is given in
Tamil as Vacitti makan Tiru Catakani.(9) The point of
interest here is the word makan appearing as an
equivalent of the wordputa found on the obverse. The
word makan is often shortened as man in Tamil, Perumakan
often occurring as Peruman. So his Cheerala Puta of the
Asoka rcord stands for Cheraman. Satiyaputa has been
rightly identified with Atiya. The word Satiyaputa
stands for Atiyaman. A point worthy of note at this
stage is Asoka"s reference to these two rulers with the
appendix puto, while he does not include the term for
either the Chola or the Pandya. In doing so Asoka has
preserved to us the early Tamil tradition. In early
Sangam works, most of the Cheras are called Cheramans
and Atiyas, Atiyaman. This term man was not appended to
either Chola or Pandya. So it is evident that the usage
Cheraman and Atiyaman quite popular in Tamilnadu, was
known even in the imperial court of Asoka. That would
show that by the time ofAsoka, in the 3rd century B.C.,
the Tamil country had well organised states,
administered by rulers of eminence and that they were in
active contact with Pataliputra. In fact Asoka says that
his emissaries went to these courts.
The Beginning
The earliest Chera king referred to in
Tamil literature seems to be Udiyan Cheral, who is
placed in 17 A.D. by Sesha Iyer(10) and 130 A.D. by K.A.
Nilakanta Sastri.(11) Sastri mainly relies on the
Gajabahu synchronism, while Sesha Iyer mainly on the
date of burning of Madurai by Kannaki as referred to in
the Silappadhikaram. Sesha Iyer"s date is arbitrary while
Sastri"s view needs reevaluation in the light of recent
studies of Tamil cave inscriptions, Quite a considerable
number of inscriptions have been found in recent times
hrowing valuable light on the evolution of the script
which also has to be considered in determining the age.
The most important is the Pugalur (Aranattarmalai)
inscription.(12) This refers to three generations of
Chera rulers Adam Cheral Irrumporai, his son
Perumkadungo, and his son Ilamkadungo. The charter was
issued when Perum Kadungo was the ruling monarch and
Ilam Kadungo was appointed crown prince. On grounds of
paleography, the inscription is assigned to the
first-second century A.D. It would be more appropriate
the ascribe it to the first century A.D. It is not
unlikely that the Cheras of the Sangam classics ruled
during the first two centuries of the Christian era. One
point of interest is the reference to a gold merchant of
Karur in the pugalur epigraph.(13) It shows there were
flourishing mercantile communities including traders in
gold, in the capital of the Cheras. Another point is
that Karur is hardly 12 km. from Pugalur. Besides this
Chera epigraph, the recent excavations at Karur by the
Tamilnadu State Department of Archaeology has yielded
inscribed pot-sherds with Brahmi inscriptions. Further
Roman Amphora pieces and rouletted ware have been found.
The find of Kaeoline ware and Russet coated ware in
excavations attest to the active contact of this capital
with the Romans. Already Karur has yielded several
hundred Roman coins. This would almost clinch he vexed
question of the capital of the Cheras. Karur (which was
also known as Vanci) in Trichy district was the capital
of the Cheras of the Sangam age. The suggestion that Udiyan Cheral was
the founder of the dynasty(14) cannot be accepted. If he
came to the throne at the beginning of the Sangam age,
there ought to have ruled many Chera rulers atleast from
the reign of Asoka till the reign of udiyan for nearly
250 years. The question would arise who was the Chera
ruling at the time of Asoka. The other possibility is
that some of the Cheras mentioned in Sangam literature
should have lived in the centuries before Christ. This
needs further study. A list of outstanding Cheras and
their achievements is given below for a proper
appreciation of their economy and coinage.
UDIYAN CHERAL
The earliest Chera to be known by name
is Udiyan Cheraladan who had the title "Perum Chorru
Udiyan". He was ruling a prosperous land and wealth,
yielded by the deep sea and also the treasures brought
in vessels by rich foreign merchants. He is said to have
fed the armies of the Kauravas and the Pandavas in the
Mahabharata war. He was a great patron of Vedic
sacrifices and was served by faithful ministers. His
royal kitchen is said to have been at Kulumur identified
with Kulukur in North Travancore.(15) He had the title
Vanavaramban and was a great patron of poets. His queen
was Nallini, the daughter of Veliyan Venman. He is said
to have ruled from the east to the west coast and is
praised for his elephant corps and cavalry.
NEDUM CHERAL ADAN
Udiyan Cheral"s son was Nedum Cheral
Adan, who had the title Imayavaramban. He conquered
seven kings and ruled a vast territory which is said to
have extended from Kanyakumari to the Himalayas. He
conquered the gold producing Konganam of Nannan. This
conquest is praised by many pots. He is also credited
with imprinting the Chera emblem on the Himalayas. The
vanquishedYavanas brought tribute from their slips,
which included golden images, rubies and other nidhis.
He conquered Mantai or Marandai; captured and imprisoned
the Yavanas; tied their hands at the back and poured
ghee over their head. Rich donations of jewels to
temples and 500 villages in Umbarkadu were gifted by
him.(16)
PALYANAI SELKELU KUTTUVAN
Imayavaramban"s brother was Playanai
Selkelu Kuttuvan the Lord of Puli Nadu, and Ayirai malai
(identified with Aiyirai Malai in Central Travancore by
Sesha Iyer).(17) He conquered Kongarnadu; followed the
path of Brahmins, assisted Palai Gautaman to perform ten
Yagas. He adored the Gods and received guests by
offering them sacrificial feeding. He is called the
leader of Malavas (Kolli and Paccur area). Nedum
Paradayar was his Minister. He conquered Ahappa and
Umbarkadu. His rule extended from the east to the west
coast. He strengthened his elephant corps and adored
Durga at Ayirai.
NARMUDICHERAL
Narmudi Cheral wore a special crown made
of gold (in the form of Kalamkay) and won the title
Kalamkaykanni Narmudicceral. He was a son of
Imayavaramban Nedum Cheral. He won a decisive victory
over Anji of Tagadur and Nannan of Pulinadu. (Sesha Iyer
identifies Tagadur with a place in Karnataka, though he
does not locate it exactly).(18) He was a great
Vaishnavite. The temple of Vishnu where he worshiped is
identified with Thiru Anantapuram. Veliyam a village of
him is described.(19) Narumudic Cheral gifted 40 lakhs
gold coins to the poet Kappiyanar.
SENGUTUVAN
Senguttuvan, the greatest of the Chera
rulers was a son of Imaya Varamban, through Manakkilli,
a Chola princess. He conquered Viyalur of Nannan Velman,
crossed the river and captured Kodukur, and defeated
Palaiyan. Nine Chola princess fought against his
brother-in-law Killi. They were defeated by Senguttuvan.
Senguttuvan waged a successful war against Kongar, won a
decisive battle against the Yavanas on the sea and got
the title Kadal Pirakkottiya.(20) The ships of the
Yavanas called in large numbers, at the port of Musiri
and in exchange for gold took back cargoes of pepper and
other products.(21) He received a request from Satakani
for assistance and went on a northern expedition. He
ruled for fifty five years. He is celebrated for
erecting a temple to Kannaki. A great patron of letters
and dance, he gifted the revenue from Umbarkadu, to the
poet Paranar.
ADUKOTPATTU CHERALADAN
Another son of Imaya Varamban and
brother of Narmudic Cheral was Adukopattuc Cheraladan.
Valuable commodities brought into his port were stored
in godowns. He invited people from other areas and
bestowed presents on them. His kingdom extend beyond the
port of Naravu, identified with "Naoura" of the Periplus
or the "Nitra" of Pliny, identified with Mangalore.
Karikala"s opponent Chraman Perum Cheral Adan is
identified with this ruler by Sesha Iyer.(22) He
rewarded a poetess, Naccellaiyar, with gold. After rule
of 38 years he was defeated at Venni and died.
SELVAKKADUNGO VALIDAN
A son of Antuvan, Selvakkadungo Valiadan
was sung about by Kapilar. He held, Brahmins in great
respect. At the conclusion of a yaga, he dedicated the
village Okantur to Vishnu his tutelary deity. He gifted
100,000 gold coins to Kapilar and all the land one could
see from the top of a hill. He was an idol of the poets.
Mantaram Poraiyan Kadungo, Pasumput Poraiyan and
Perumput Poraiyan are probably identical with him. He
ruled for 25 years and died at Chikkarpalli.
PERUMCHERAL IRUMPORAI
Perumcheral Irumporai was a son of
Selvakkadungo, through Paduman devi, a daughter of
Velavi Koman. He defeated the Atiyaman chief at Nirkur
situated at Kolli Kurram; captured Tagadur and Nocci and
defeated the two rulers. He gifted his entire throne,
palace and 900,000 Kanam, to Arisil Kilar. But the poet
gave back the kingdom and was happy to serve as a
minister. Also called Kodai Marba, he ruled for
seventeen years.
ILAMCHERAL IRUMPORAI
Ilam Cheral Irumporai was a son of
Kuttuvan Irumporai through Cellai, daughter, of Maiyur
Kilan Venmal Antuvan. He defeated the two kings, Vicci,
Ilam Palaiyan Maran of Vittai, Perumchola the ruler of
Potti; "captured Vanci-mutur and five forts; had Maiyur
Kilan as his minister, brought the great Bhuta from
Vanci, (of the catukka), gifted 32,000 Kanam, gifted
lands and villages. His land abounded in sandal wood and
ahil. He was the lord of Tondi, Kongar Nadu, Kuttuvar
Nadu and Puli Nadu, and ruled for sixteen years.
PALAI PADIYA PERUMKADUNGO
Sesha Iyer holds that Perumkadungo came
in the main line.(23) He was a ruler of Vanci and a
friend of the Pandya. He is said to have been posterior
to Senguttvan was an eminent poet and is probably
identical with Perumkadungo of the Pugalur record.(24)
TRADE
The ports were even more numerous on the
west coast than on the east and in closer contact with
the traders of Roman empire. Musiri was perhaps the
leading emporium in the Purananuru, speaks of the sale
of fish for paddy, of bags of pepper, and of the
transport of a variety of merchandise in small boats
from the large ships to the shore. Bandar and Kodumanam
were other ports with a wealth of sea-borne imports.
Bandar was noted for its pearls and Kodumanam for rare
jewels. Mention is made of the abundance of quarterzite
precious stones in the hills of the Chera country and we
find allusions to artisans skilled in the repair and
refitting of ships".(25) Pliny in his Natural History
states that "Musiris was the first emporium of
India;(26) He adds "The station for ships is at a
distance from the shore and cargoes have to be landed
and shipped by means of little boats. There reigned
there, when I wrote this, Coelobothros". The Periplus
says, "Musiri a city at the height of prosperity was two
miles distance from he mouth of the river on which it is
situated and was the seat of the Government of the
Kingdom under the sway of Kaprobothras.(27)
It is evident from the above that the
Cheras were the most powerful rulers among the Sangam
monarchs and controlled a vast territory from Karur in
Tiruchirapalli district to Musiris in the west coast
which covered a part of southern Karnataka and Konkan.
They were in contact with the Satavahans. Among the
Tamil kings, the Cheras are mentioned most frequently in
connection with the Yavanas, either subduing them on the
sea or encouraging their trade. Besides agriculture the
fact that trade flourished in their land gets repeated
mention. Though barter like fish for paddy, is mentioned
there was considerable exchange of gold and currency,
proved by archaeological evidence and literature. Gold
merchants from Karur mentioned in the Pugalur epigraph
of the Cheras attest the important trade in this
precious metal. The Romans brought vast amounts of gold.
The Cheras frequently seized the gold producing Konkan.
The Cheras of the Sangam age must have issued a
currency. The coinage of the Cheras may be studied
under three groups, (a) the punch marked coins found in
Tamilnadu, (b) The Roman coins found in large numbers
and (c) the local issues.
PUNCH MARKED COINS
About the punch marked coins of Kerala,
Parameshwara Lal Gupta states "Except two hoards the
finds of coins are not properly recorded anywhere, nor
are they kept secure to enable one to study them". One
of the hoards consists of 184 coins of silver punch
marked coins found in Kottayam distsrict and the other
from Iyyal village, Cochin district. The latter includes
12 gold Roman coins, 71 Roman dinarius and 34 silver
punch marked coins. The date of the deposit may be
placed convincingly around 100 A.D."(28)
Mr. Gupta"s analysis shows that Roman
coins were in circulation along with the punch marked
coins and (b) by 100 A.D. the Roman coins have found
their way to Tamil country.
ROMAN COINS
The archaeological evidence from
Arikkamedu, should be considered as Wheeler places the
Roman settlement at Arikkamedu at 25 B.C. or to the
beginning of the Christian era, the phase of Arretine
being circa 50 A.D.(29) "Since Muziri was the port of
inflow of Roman coins into India, it is reasonable to
expect may finds of Roman coins in this state. But
curiously enough we have hardly any knowledge of the
find of Roman coins in this state. Besides Iyyal, the
only other hoard noticed so far is Kottayam".(30) The
find of gold and silver Roman coins along with the
silver punch marked coin in the hoard suggests that the
Roman coins were not only imported but that the people
of the country accepted them as current coins. Roman
coins were of the same weight as punch marked coins.
It would therefore be reasonable to
infer that the commercial potentialities of the Tamil
country had reached an attractive stage even in the
first century B.C. to attract Roman trade. It is also
seen that most of the items sought by the Romans were
the products of the Chera country. The Chera country
should have had a developed economy for such a trade. So
the date 2nd century A.D. assigned by K.A. Nilakanta
Sastri seems to me too late and I am inclined to place
it in Ist century B.C. to Ist century A.D. That the
punch marked coins were in circulation in the Chera
country is attested. In the literature of the period we
get references to the following currency-Ka, Pon, Kanam
and Kasu. What these mean can at best only be
conjectured. In the Sangan age gold, silver, copper and
probably lead were well known. The Chera king
Narmudi-cheral gifted 40,00,000 pon to the poet
Kappiyan. Adu kotpattuc Cheraladan gifted nine Ka gold
and 100,000 Kanam to the poetess Naccellai. The amount
of nine Ka gold was given for ornament.(31)
Selvakkadungo gifted 100,000 Kanam to Kapilar; Arisil
Kilr got 900,000 Kanam from Perumcheral Irumporai-and
Perum Kunrur Kilar got 32,000 Kanam from Ilam Cheral..
LOCAL COINS
The third group of coins to be studied
is the local issues of the Cheras. So far no coin has
been identified as their issue. Judging from the volume
of trade, mentioned under Cheras, it is unlikely that
the Cheras did not issue any coin of their own. In this
connection a particular group of coins found in large
numbers in Tamilnadu but ascribed to the Pandyas
deserves re-examination. A large number of copper coins are
square in shape, carrying on the observe well exequted
figures of elephants, standing either with or without
riders. The elephant is topped by a number of auspicious
emblems, like Chakra, Srivatsa Kalasa, Chaitya etc. On
the reverse is a triangular symbol topped by a semi
circular arch. All most all writers on South Indian
numismatics have taken these coins as Pandya issues.(32)
The main reason seems to be the triangular symbol on the
reverse, taken to be a conventional fish, as suggested
by Codrington.(33) This was doubted by others who took
it to represent the plan of the city of Madurai, with
the river Vaigai.(34) The symbol is certainly not a
fish. This is evident from the fact that there is a semi
circular arch above the diagram. Secondly it cannot be
considered the plan of Madurai. Fortunately we have a
description in ancient literature of the lay out of
Madurai. A verse in the Paripadal(35) tells us that the
city was in the form of a fully blossomed lotus flower,
the royal palace occupaying the centre. The triangular
diagram on the reverse of the coin, does not conform to
this description. Thirdly though the diagram appears on
the reverse, it is clear that it is not the principal
device on the coin. The main motif is the elephant on
the obverse. The elephant symbol occurs on the punch
marked coins and also on some of the Satavahana coins.
But in the issues found in Tamil nadu, it should be
associated with the dynasty which used it as its emblem.
It has been mentioned earlier, that it was the Cheras,
who are frequently referred to as the owners of large
groups of elephants. One of the Cheras assumed the title
"Chera of several elephants". It is an indisputable fact
that the elephant was closely associated with the Chera
dynasty. Even in the mediaeval period, the coins of
indisputably Chera origin, showing the bow and palmyra
tree device, portray the elephant. So the square coins with the elephant
device must be considered the issues of the Cheras of
the Sangam age. That the Cheras were the most dominant
rules of the Sangam age has been mentioned earlier.
Among the early coins of the Tamil country, the square
coins with elephant, are found in greater numbers. This
confirms our presumption. A word must be said about the so called
Buddhist symbols on these coins. That symbols which
include Chaitya, Cakra, Srivatsa, Kalasa etc. are
auspicious symbols of the pre-Buddhist age is well known
though they are frequently met within the Buddhist
context as well. All they seek to represent seems to be
prosperity and plenty. It is interesting that in the Sangam
works the Chera kings are said to ascend the neck of the
elephants.(36) In the coins under discussion where
riders are shown, the principal rider is shown on the
neck of the elephant. In some of he coins, Brahmi
legends are said to occur I had no access so far to such
a coin. A few other coins, also square in shape
but carrying a bull or fish(37) are also ascribed to the
Pandyas. But these are issues of other dynasties. This
will be discussed in he sequel.
VILVELI THE GREAT CHERA
There is an interesting work in Tamil
called Pandikkovai,(38) sung in praise of a Pandya
ruler, Arikesari Parankusa Maravarman. This ruler is
obviously Arikesari, the son of Pandya Sendan.(39) His
inscription recently found in Madurai, shows that he was
a great conqueror and that he ruled for fifty years.
(650-700 A.D.) He is mentioned in a number of copper
plate charters of the Pandyas, where his exploits are
mentioned. His principal opponent was a Chera whom he
defeated in a number of battles. Pandikkovai, and the
copper plates mention a number of places where he
defeated the Chera. It is specific about these
battlefields. From this we can surmise the extent of the
Chera power. It is evident that he was the most
outstanding Chera king of the early period. His capital
was Vanci-the modern Karur. From Karur in Tiruchy
district his empire extended to the west coast, and all
the south-west coast including the whole of modern and
the whole of south Pandya country from Kanyakumari to
Tirunelveli. The Pandya"s first battle with the Chera
was at Arrukudi. This place might possibly be identified
with Arrangudi in Ramnad district. Among the
battlefields mentioned often are Sevur and Ten Pulandai.
In both these places, the opponent of the Pandya was the
Chera. These two places have not been identified yet. It
is possible that Sevur is identical with Sevur in Ramnad
district where many historic battles where fought, the
most famous being the battle between Aditya Chola II and
Vira Pandya in the 10th century A.D. This place is near
Arrukkudi. The other place Ten Pulandai, is probably
Pulankurichi, a village adjacent to Sevur, where a
historic inscription has been found. These
identifications should be taken as tentative, in which
case Arrangudi, Sevur and Pulandai being nearby places,
should be taken to represent the same battle which seems
to have been continuously fought between the Chera and
the Pandya. The presence of Sevur near Ponnamaravati
need not surprise us. The rulers of the Kodumbalur
region were called Konattar, and that they were ruling
the Kongu country is also known. In the recently
discovered inscription of Pulankuruchi, Konganadu is
mentioned(40) with Pandinadu. Among the opponents of
Pandya Arikesari, referred to in the Pandikkovai, is a
Vennattan. The inscription from Pulankurichi, refers to
a Vennattan. So in all likelihood, the Chera fought with
Pandya Arikesari at Sevur which seems to have occupied a
strategic position through the centuries. It would show
that the Chera power was felt upto Sevur in Ramand
district. Pandikkovai credits the Pandya with
victories over Musirri and the Konganadu. Whether the
Pandya"s claim of victory over the Kongu country and
through the Palghat gap reached Musiris in the west
coast is doubtful. But the Chera was not to be easily
subdued. From the south, he seems to have captured the
entire south Pandi nadu, upto Thirunelveli. So the
Pandya has to fight in the south and one of the fiercest
battle was at Nelveli (a modern Thirunelveli) where the
Pandya emerged victorious. The fight continued. The
places where he defeated the Chera, specifically
mentioned are, Kadayal (identical with Kadaiyam) Kottaru
(modern Nagarkoil) Kanyakumari, and Vilinjam. This
account of Pandikkovai, is corroborated by the copper
plate charters. The Velvikkudi grants of Nedunjadaiyan
and both the Sinnamnur grants make specific references
to Arikesari"s severe fight with the Chera.
Unfortunately who this powerful Chera was we do not
know. It is possible he was called "Vilveli" as
mentioned in the Velvikkudi grant.(41) Though the Pandya
claims victory, the extent of the Chera kingdom was
something stupendous He was ruling the Kongu country,
the entire south west coast (Travancore state) and the
whole of the South Pandinadu, from Kanyakumari to
Thirunelveli. Properly speaking he should be termed the
first imperial Chera king known to history. This Chera
is undoubtedly the founder of the imperial Chera
dynasty. He should have ruled between 650-700 A.D. The
Pallaval contemporaries at that period were Narasimha I,
Mahendra II and Paramesvara I. Interestingly Narasimha-I
also states that he conquered Kerala several times.
According to the Kuram grant, Narasimha I defeated the
Chola, Kerala, Kalabhra and Pandya several times.(42)
That the Cheras were in the Karur region, near in the
Kaveri delta is attested by another source. "Pulikesin
II, driving the Pallava behind the forts of Kanchi,
reached as far south as the Kaveri river, and there
caused prosperity to the Chola, Kerala and Pandya", says
his Aihole inscription.(43) This also leaves no doubt
that the Keralas had their seat of power near the Kaveri
in Karur. The references in the epigraphs to the
Pallavas, Chalukyas, and Pandyas show that the Chera
still ruled from near the Kaveri (with Karur - Vanci as
the capital) though they had brought the entire
Travancore State under their sway in the 7th century
A.D.
VASCILLATION
In the 8th century A.D., the Chera is
seen vascillating between Karur in Tiruchy district and
Trivandrum on the west coast. The copper plates of the
Pallavas give us a glimpse about their field of action.
In the reign of Pandya Parantaka Nedumjadaiyan, the
Chera is still in the Karur region as a close ally of
the Pallava. Nedumjadaiyan defeated the Atiya, at first,
at Ayiraveli Aiyilur, and pursued him to Pugalur and
vanquished him. The Pallava and Kerala came to help the
Atiya, but were also defeated. The Pandya further
defeated the western Kongu ruler, according to the
Srivaramangalam plates." That this war between Kerala
and Pallava on the one hand and the Pandya on the other,
took place at Karur is indicated by Dalavaypuram plates
which specifically say Parantaka defeated the Kadava
(Pallava)(45) at Karur. But the Vaishnava saint
Thirunmangai Alvar, states that the Pallava won a
victory over the Pandya at Karur.(46). This would
indicate that the Karur battle was indecisive.
But a point of interest here is that the
region around Vilinjam, seems to have slipped out of the
hand of the Chera and was controlled by the Ay Vel
chief. Pandya Parantaka states in his Srivaramangalam
plates, that he defeated the Vel chief at Vilinjam.(47)
(This chief was probably an ancestor of Karunan who came
to the throne in the 9th century). Within a short
period, the Chera reganed again the Vilinjam area.
Pandya Parantaka"s son, Sri Mara Srivallabha, claims to
have killed the Chera in a battle at Vilinjam.(48)
So in the middle of the 9th Century the
Cheras was vascillataing between Karur and Vilinjam.
Around 850 to 900 the Vilinjam region was under the
control of the Ay chiefs Karunan Tadakkan and
Aviyalantadakkan.
KULASEKHARA AND CHERAMAN PERUMAL
Before we come to the great age of the
Kulasekharas, we have to discuss two eminent Chera
rulers. One is the Saivite Saint Cheraman Perumal and
the other is the Vaishnavite Saint Kulasekhara. The date
of these two Chera rules is far from settled but in all
likelihood they lived in the 8th century A.D. Pandit. M.
Raghava Iyangar holds the view that these two rulers
were successive monarchs and considers that Cheraman
succeeded Kulasekhara.(49) Kulasekhara became one of the celebrated
Alvars and his poems came to be called the Perumal
Thirumoli. He was a great devotee of Rama. In his poems
he calls himself, Kongar Koman (the ruler of Kongu) with
his capital at Kollingar, identified with a village at
the foot of Kolli hills in the Kongu country. M. Raghava
Iyangar goes to the extent of identifying Kollinagar
with Karur in Trichy district (the identification seems
to us doubtful) and suggests that with Karur as his
Capital, he ruled up to the west coast, including
Kondungolur. The "Divya suri carita," of Garudavahana
Pandita,(50) the earliest work to give a biographical
sketch of the Alwars, specifically mentions that
Kulasekhara was ruling in the west coast, near
Kozikkodu. A point of interest is that Kulasekhara
mentions in his own work that he was the Lord of Kolli,
Kudal, koli and Kongu. Koli is another name for the city
of Uraiyur, the capital of the Cholas. In he 8th century
A.D., there was no Chola worth the name and Uraiyur ws
changing hands frequently between the Pandyas and the
Pallavas. We have seen that the Cheras were still
vascillating between Karur near Trichy and Kodungolur in
the west during that period. It is possible that
Kulasekhara was holding (Uraiyur) Koli, probably as an
ally or subordinate of the Pallavas. But his claim to
have ruled over Kudal i.e. Madurai, must be considered
more rhetorical than real. It is not unlikely that his
capital was situated at the west coast though he had the
Kongu under his control and finally settled in Srirangam
(near Koli, the capital of the Cholas) renouncing the
kingdom. H. sarkar seems to accept the suggestion that
this Kulasekhara was the founder of the second Chera
dynasty.(51) The other Chera ruler is Cheraman
Perumal, a contemporary of the Saivite Saint
Sunddaramurti. Sekkilar, the author of Periya Puranam
clearly locates his capital at Thiruvanjaikkalam in the
coast(52) and that his power seems to have confined to
the west coast only with even the Kongu country falling
outside his domains. Cheraman seems to have lived on
friendly terms with the other South Indian rulers and
traveled through the Pallava, Chola and Pandya cuntries.
He is identified with Rajasekhara, the successor of
Kulasekhara.(53) We are not sure whether this
identification could be sustained. The probability of
Cheraman Perumal, being a ruler of an earlier period, as
a contemporary of Pallava Rajasimha is not ruled out.
However the study shows that the Chera
power was active in the "Kongu-Karur" region and that
their currency should have been very much in circulation
in the territory. The point of interest is the currency
that was prevalent in the Chera country in the 7th and
8th century A.D. No coin that could be attributed to the
Cheras of this age has been identified. Rajasekhara, who
ascended the throne in circa, 820 A.D. stipulated a fine
of one hundred "dinaras" on those who hindered the
Sribali ceremony.(54) Commenting on this, H. Sarkar
holds that it is an anachronism to consider the "dinara"
as Roman. He suggests that it must have been the Arab
gold currency(55). He also suggests that the word
dirammam appearing in some Tamil inscriptions should be
considered a corruption of dinara.(56) Dirammam is a
Tamil form of Drachma. Mr. Chattopadhyaya has shown that
the currency named "Dinara" was in circulation even in
4th century A.D. at Nagarjunakonda, much earlier to the
Arab currency.(57) In all likelihood the Dinara of
Rajasekhara"s epigraph should be taken to refer to Roman
currency. However it is difficult to say whether it was
a gold coin or silver coin, for the word dinarai seems
to have been used to denote coins of both the
metals.(58)
VIRA KERALA
A coin of the Chera that has attracted
great discussion is the silver coin bearing the legend
"Vira Kerala".(59) Recently a hoard of this coin was
found in Chingleput district. Quite a number of them
seems to have been found but only a few could be
recovered. I have examined these coins closely. On one
side there is the legend Sri Virakeralasya and a figure
resembling what has been identified as crocodile. The
figure is clearly not a crocodile, but only a floral
design. The reverse has also a Nagari legend and has
been rightly read as "Srri Gandarankusasya" by N.
Lakshminarayana Rao.(60) The coin has been discussed by
both Chattopadhyaya and Vidya Prakash in recent
times.(61) Lakshminarayana Rao assigns it to Vira kerala
who ascended the throne around 1127 A.D. Chattopadhyaya
leaves the question of identity open. The find off a
hoard of this coin in Chingleput district in Northern
part of Tamilnadu, would show that this currency was
widely used throughout Tamilnadu. The coin is found in
abundance in the collection of private coin collectors
though the exact provenance of their occurrence, is not
certain but is sufficient to show, that the currency had
great circulation. About the identity of the rulers who
issued this coin, all scholas have held hat the earliest
Vira Kerala who figures in epigraph, occurs in the reign
of Rajadhi Raja Chola I in 1046 A.D.(62) But recently an
inscription copied by the Tamilnadu State Archaeology
Department of Cholavandan, near Madurai refers to a
Virakerala in an inscription of Rajaraja I.
In the Kongu region, there were a
succession of rulers with the name Vira Kerala. Some of
them also bore the name Kandan. It has been shown
recently that they were the Kalabhras of the
epigraphs.(63) Their inscriptions are found in the Kongu
country. The name Gandarankusasya occurring on the
reverse may be taken to refer to one such Kanda, who
ruled in the 10th century. The word need not be taken to mean "goad
to the heroes". It may be taken to mean "Gandara who was
an ankusa". Such an expression is plausible. We have to
titles Vama, and Vamankusa for the same ruler at
Mamallapuram.(64) The absence of any dynastic emblem
might also suggest that the coin was issued by a Kongu
Chera ruler, who belonged to the Kalabhra dynasty.
It must be admitted that not much coins
have come to light which could be attributed to the
mediaeval Cheras.
LATER CHERA COINS
The coins of the Later Cheras could now
be identified with an amount of certainty. Quite a
number of these coins were included in the list of
Pandyan coins by earlier writers. I have shown that
these were issued by the later Cheras.(65) But before
these coins are taken up for discussion, the coins
generally attributed to the Cheras may be examined.
Sri. Vidya Prakash, discusses the Chera
coins under three categories (1) The coins of Virakerala
(2) The gold and copper coinst found in Kongu desa,
bearing on the obverse an elephant and on the reverse a
scroll work and (3) the copper coins of uniform variety
with minor deviations, carrying on the one side a device
identified with a "vase on a stand" and on the obverse
"elephant-bow-sword" device.(66)
The coin of Virakerala has already been
discussed. The second variety with elephant on the
obverse and a scroll on the reverse were the issues of
the Gangas of Talakkadu will be discussed in the
sequence. But the third variety is found in large
numbers and judging from their size and shape, they
certainly seems to be late mediaeval coins. The obverse
remains constant in the series. Illustrating these coins
Elliot Writers; "Nos. 121-127. The seven following
characteristic copper coins are difficult to describe.
They all have on the reverse the same symbol which may
be compared to an altar of drum shaped object. The
obverse has generally a bow and one or more five pointed
posts or standards, in one instance together with an
elephant, in others weapon like a sacrifical bill or
axe".(67) Regarding this design, Vidya Prakash has the
following observation; "The reverse design has got several
variations. Bow is invariably present in all the cases.
The other symbol which is also present in all the
varieties is, according to our observations a sword
super-imposed by a cross. The pointed end is some-times
below and sometimes above. Krishna"s identification of
this symbol as a burning lamp does not appear to be
corrected. Between the bow and the sword the symbols
vary".(68) The uniform symbol on all these coins is
what seems to be an altar, flanked by lamp on stand.
Over the altar are seen circular pellet like objects,
probably representing coins or the globular Kalanju.
Whether this has any reference to some Vedic sacrifice,
symbolic of Hiranya garbha or Bahusuvarna sacrifice, is
difficult to say at present. But the symbol on the other side can be
more satisfactorily explained. That the bow is the
dynastic emblem of the Cheras is well known. The
elephant is equally associated with the Cheras has also
been explained earlier. The other symbol described as
five pointed post by Elliot and "a sword with a
superimposed cross" by Vidya Prakash,(69) is in fact a
representation of palmyra tree. In early Tamil
literature the palmyra is distinctly associated with the
Cheras. The Chera used to wear palmyra flower as his
emblem. So it is clear that the emblem under discussion
is a palmyra tree. In some instances Vidya Prakash seems
to have photographed the coins upside down (as in case
of pl. vii-II) and what is described as a daggar with
point down, words, is infact a lamp on stand found on
most of South Indian coins. The Huzur Plates refer to Kalanju which
is used both in the sense of weight and gold currency.
That it is weight when it refers to nine Kalanju of
tamrind. But it is coin when it refers to the endowment
of 18 Kalanju of gold as raksha bhogam. While referring
to this gold, it states Sudum Uraiyum Varuvadu i.e.
probably refring to its standad tested both by heating
and rubbing. It is also clear from this record that out
of the 18 Kalanju of gold, the Melsanti priest got 15
kanam and the kilsanti (attendent priest) 15 kanam, the
rest 15 kalanju, being used for other services. This
makes it clear that 30 kanam, equaled three kalanju,
each kalanju being equal to 10 kanam.(70) Incidentally
it is also learnt that kanam was also used in the sense
of a weight - ten kanam sandal and ten kanam - Ahil
etc.(71) The same charter also refers to ten kanams of
gold 2 ½ kanam etc. which shows that kanams were in the
denomination of 1, 2 ½, 5 and 10. A point of interest is
that if one failed to measure for a day the stipulated
quantity, he should pay double the measures. For two
days default, the fine remained the same but for the
third day, a fine of ten kanam was imposed. For more
than three days upto 18 days, he should pay three
kalanju as fine. For 18 days and more the fine was a
high as six kalanju.(72) A general study of the coinage of
Kerala, shows that from 9th to 11th Century A.D., the
main currency was gold kalanju and gold kanam. The
occurrence of the currency dinar in an incription of
Rajasekhara, is a stray instance, showing that those who
had the gold dinara could use them also as a currency
but the local currency was kalanju and kanam.
In the reign of the ruler, Indu Kodai,
961 A.D., kanam was in use 2 ½ kanam being prescribed as
a fine for a day"s default.(73) Five years later in the
same reign of Indu Kodai, an endowment of ten kalanju
was gifted for worship.(74) An inscription of the same
Century A.D., thirty six kalanju of gold as equal to old
coin (Palam kasu). It shows that the currency kasu was
in circulatin earlier and was in all probability a gold
coin. What this Palam kasu, meant, we know nothing.
Another inscription of the 10th Century,
dated in the reign of Kerala Kesari Perumal, refers to
the payment of wages to various servants as follows.
10 kanam daily to Perumudiyan. 10 kanam
daily to the worshipping priest. 10 kanam daily to the
person bringing fire wood 10 kanam daily to the Cook. 5
kanam each to those husking paddy, cleaning the dining
place and cleaning the vessels. A defaulter was expected
to pay a fine of 12 kalanju of Pon.(75) Another inscription, dated around 1000
A.D., in the reign of Bhaskara Ravivarman, refers to 120
kalanju of gold inclusive of Palam kasu (old kasu) which
yielded an interest of 10%(76) However a 11th Century inscription,
refers to the endowment of ten kalanju of gold for one
perpetual lamp, and a gift of 33 Ilakkasu, in the hands
of the Village assembly of Mincirai.(77) Probably 33
Ilakkasu was equal to 10 kalanju. However it is clear
that kalanju, kanam, kasu and Ilakkasu were in
circulation in 10th-11th century A.D. What however one
does not find mention is the currency Accu, or Panam in
this period. Most of the Chola records, found in
South Travancore, particularly after the conquest of the
region by Raja Raja I, in 11th century, refers to the
transactions either in terms of lands or sheep or cows,
and rarely in terms of currency and whether currency is
referred to it is either in terms of Kalanju or Kasu.
The terms kalanju and kanam slowly
disappear from records of later age, though they seem to
have continued upto the 13th century A.D. An
interestsing epigraph of 13th century relates to certain
stipulation and social conduct. It states that a Sudra
should be fined 12 kanam if he aims an arrow at a
Brahmin, six kalanju if a Sudra abuses another Sudra,
and if a Sudra murders another Sudra 12 kalanju gold
should be imposed". On a comparative study of Dharma
sastra, the editor states "According to some
authorities, a kanam is equal to 3 kalanju and according
to some epigraphs, it appears that it is of lesser
weight than kalanju".(78) It is worthy of note that
according to Kautilya that if the persons abused happen
to be of superior rank the amount of fine should be
doubled and if of lower rank should be halved(79) In
both the instances the editors equation of kalanju with
kanam seems to be wrong. If the Dharmasastra or Artha
Sastra rules are applied, kalanju in this record would
be equal to one kanam. But we have seen earlier, that
one kalanju equaled to 10 kanams from 9th to 11th
century A.D. It is not known whether the value of
kalanju depreciated in 13th century or the term kalanju
and kanams were used as synonyms. From the records of the 12th century
A.D., we find the word accu being prominently mentioned.
The Mitranandapuram records of 12th century refers to 30
Anai Accu (elephant coin). It refers to 600 Parai of
paddy which yielded an annual interest of 60 Parai,
amounting to 10%, interest. Similarly 30 Anai Accus were
endowed yielding 72 Parai paddy. If we calculate at the
rate of 10% interest, one Accu fetched 24 Parai of
paddy. The Minchiraimattam plates of 13th century A.D.,
refers to a gift of several Accus by various
individuals. An inscription from Sivagairi, refers to a
Brahmin lady, endowing three Salakai and 10 Accu.(80)
The editor takes I as three Salaka and ten accu.
The term accu is evidently a reference
to a dye-struck coin. The term Anai Accu clearly shows
that the coin bore on it a figure of elephant. Bu it is
not clear whether this accu was a gold coin or copper
coin. We have some gold coins with the figure of an
elephant on one side and a scroll device on the reverse.
But this coin we consider to be an issue of the Gangas
of Talakkadu. Among the copper coins we may
distinguish two types of coins bearing the figure of
elephant. One type has an elephant on the obverse and a
Tamil legend "Kulasekhara" over two fish and a cendu.
Illustrated as coin no. 49a. by T. Desikachari, it has
been included among the Pandya coins. But in view of the
fact elephant occupies the whole of obverse side and the
word Kulasekhara is placed over the Pandyan symbol, it
seems to us that the coin was an issue of a Chera who
conquered the Pandya country. It seems to us that this
was an issue of Ravivarman Kulasekhara who overran the
Pandya and other countries upto Madras in the beginning
of 14th century A.D. The other coin baring elephant is the
one which bears "Bow-Elephant-Palmyra tree", on one
side, found in large numbers and assigned to the Kongu
Cheras. It is not known to which of these coins the term
Anai Accu of the inscription refers. But judging from
the records it seems that the value of the Accu was very
high and that it should have been a gold coin. We have
shown that endowments of 30 accus, 10 accus and even 3
accus, recorded in inscriptions suggest their
denominational value to be high. If so the point of
interest is whether the Cheras of the Northern
Travancore, allowed the Ganga coins to circulate in
their region and probably also minted themselves such
coins. In this case we may take the term Anai Accu as
referring to the gold coin with elephant on one side and
scroll work on the reverse. Some inscriptions refer to Salaka and
Accu. Inscription No. 60 from Sivagiri, refers to three
Salaka and ten accu. Another inscription refers to three
Salaka and three accu. In some epigraphs, a currency
called Palam Salaka is also refered to. That out surmise, accu stands for "gold
coin in confirmed by an inscription from Suchindram in
Kanyakumari district. Dated in Kollam year 420 (1225
A.D.) it records the endowments of ten accu for burning
one perpetual lamp and the accu is mentioned as Puduppon
Accu i.e. new gold accu. Around 1224 A.D., ten accus
were deposited for one perpetual lamp. It indicates
between 1225 and 1245, a new gold accu has been issued.
The ruler of Venad, during this period was Ravi Kerala
Varma (1215-1240).(81) This ruler took great interest in
the welfare of the common people and directed attention
to strengthen the economy by a realistic policy of
remitting taxes in case of failure of crops.(82) It is
likely this ruler issued the new gold coin called
Puduppon Accu mentioned in inscription. We have
mentioned that the Anai Accu, used in Kerala, was
probably adopted from the Kongu country around 1100 A.D.
A certain Vira Rajendra Chola was the most powerful
ruler of the Kongu country between 1207 and 1252. He
styled himself the ruler of both the Konggus and his
rule extended to a part of Trichy and Madurai districts.
He had a long and effective rule and we find the name of
the currency Anai Accu is his records. So the Anai Accu
in the South Kerala record were in all probability the
Kongu coins which have gained currency through North
Kerala Kingdom of Mahodayapuram.
VENAD CHERAS
From about the beginning of 12th
century, the South Kerala was under Venad rulers who
asserted their independence. They styled themselves as
"Ciraivay Mutta Thiruvadi", etc. A number of illustrious
rulers like Kodai Kerala Varma, Udaya Martanda
Varma,Vira Rama Kerala Varma,Ravi Kerala Varma, and
others had useful rule. But the greatest of the family
was Ravivarman Kulasekhara (1299-1314). He married a
daughter of the Pandya ruler Maravarman Kulasekhara, and
remained a feudatory of the Pandya till his death in
1310. At the death of the Pandya Maravarman Kulasekhara,
he staked his claim to the Pandya throne and started
issuing records as an independent sovereign. This period
witnessed the incursion of Malikkaffur and resulted in
confusion. Ravivarman Kulasekhara was a master
politician. He quickly overran the southern country and
brought the entire south, from Kanyakumari to Madras,
under his banner. His inscription is found in
Puntamalli, a suburb of Madras and all over Tamilnadu.
"In his role as the conqueror, Ravi Varman shoot across
the political horizon of South India, like a fashing
meteor".(83) His contribution to literature and religion
are well remembered. Brisk trade and commercial activity
and contact with outside worlds like China are well
known. It is in this connection, a few coins of
the period deserve to be studied. Three or four types of
coins, bearing the name Kulasekhara assignable to
13-14th centuries A. D. on paleographical grounds, are
known. (I) They are. A coin with a standing King on the
obverse and the Tamil legend "Kulasekhara" over two fish
and a sceptre in the reverse. It is listed as No. 49,
under the Pandya coins by Sir. T. Desikachari. Listed as
No. 71 by T. Desikachari, it has the standing King on
the obverse and the Tamil legend Kulasekhara, beneath an
umbrella and chouris. Listed as 49a by T. Desikachari.
Obverse elephant passant to the left with emblems or
characters above which cannot be deciphered. Reverse.
Above two fishes separated by a sceptre is the Tamil
legend Kulasekhara. Standing figure on the obverse and
seated figure on the reverse with the Tamil legend
"Kula" beneath the arm. The third coin mentioned above, seems to
us a coin of Ravivarman Kulasekhara. The first two coins
were probably issued by Maravarman Kulasekhara pandya
under whom Ravivarman remained a feudatory first. These
coins were under circulation, when Ravivarman
Kulasekhara, conquered the Pandya country and became an
absolute monarch. Probably to commemorate this conquest
he issued the coin with his crest elephant on the
obverse and the name Kulasekhara over the Pandya crest.
The importance given to elephant would justify our
assumptions. I have assigned a few other coins,
(hitherto listed under Pandya coins) to the Chera rulers
of South Kerala. These coins bear names like
Kaliyugaraman, Bhutalaviram, Cherakularaman and
Bhaskara. These range from 14th to 17th century A.D.
CHANGE IN CURRENCY
Before we discuss these coins, a great
change in the currency system seems to have taken place
which it is necessary to understand. The kalanju has
almost disappeared and the accu which replaced it slowly
begin to lose its popularity and we find the term "Panam
appearing prominently from the end of 13th century A.D.
and in 14-16th century it seems to have become too
popular. This has to be studied in the overall context
of South Indian currency. However in Kerala, it is the
dominant currency mentioned in records.
LATER CHERA COINS
Now the identification of some of the
later Chera coins an be taken up. T. Desikachari, has
illustrated coins with the name Kaliyugaraman and
Bhutalaviran. In the coin bearing the name Kaliyugaraman
in Tamil characters of about 15th century A.D. are found
two foot impressions over what seems to be a bow. The
feet are topped by a parasol and a chank. This coin has
been included under the list of Pandya coins. Similarly
there is another coin bearing the name "Cherakularaman"
on one side and a standing figure on the other.
Commenting on these coins, Desikachari remarks;
"Kaliyugaraman and Cherakularaman point
possibly to the same facts as those recorded in the
Srirangam inscriptions or to a second invasion of Ceylon
by the allies of the Pandyas and Cheras. But a
Maravarman Thirunelveli Perumal Vira Pandya has
inscriptions of his in the Ramnad and Thirunelveli
districts and the lithic record in later districts
mentions coins known as Kaliyugaraman. The coins bearing
the legend have therefore to be attributed to one of the
later Pandyas who probably ruled in the 15th
century."(84) That the Pandyan crest was fish is well
known. In the 12th to 14th century, Pandya records and
coins, two fish and a sceptre are found a their crest.
Bu in the coins under discussion no fish is found. The
Kaliyugaraman coin bears two foot impression called
Vishnu Pada. Further these coins have been mostly found
in Thirunelveli, Kanyakumari and south Kerala.
In the year 1487 A.D., 400 Kaliyugaraman
Panam were deposited in the treasury of Puravaseri in
Kanyakumari district. In the same region, in a village
called Parakkai, 400 anradu Valangum Nenmeli
Kaliyugaraman Panam" were gifted for burning a perpetual
lamp in the year 1509 A.D. Another record from the same
village, dated in 1689 refers to the same Kaliyugaraman
Panam. This coin has remained a valid ender from 1487 to
1689 for over 200 years. Obviously this coin in
circulation in the extreme south of India, was an issue
of the Chera rulers of Venad. The Travancore and rulers
were called Thiruvadis, (Sripada) and their country
itself was called "Thiruvadi Rajya". They were great
devotees of Lord Anantapadmanabha. So the presense of
foot prints, called Vishnu Pada, were their symbols and
there could be no doubt that these coins with the Vishny
Pada, and the name Kaliyugaraman were the issues of
Chera rulers. Since it appears in the 15th century
records, it should have been issued in the 15th century.
Who this Chera, Kaliyugaraman was needs further study.
In this connection, Elliot has left an
interesting note on a coin of Kerala. "They as well as
the Rasi, have long given place to more modern currency.
The oldest form of which is the "Kali" properly called
"Kali Yugen Rajen Panam" and it is known that the name
or money of the "Kali Yuga" at one time current over the
whole of Kerala. Of these there are two varieties
bearing a slight resemblance to the Rasi. One of these
is said to have been issued by the Kolathanadraja". This
view is repeated by Sreedhara Menon in his survey of
Kerala history.(85) Kali or Kaliyugara"en Panam, which
is mentioned as late as 1689 refers to this coin. As it
was in circulation for over two hundred years, its name
has survived till the days of Elliot. The coins bearing the legend "Chera
Kularaman" similarly should be considered an issue of
Chera kings and not Pandya as held by other scholars.
There are two types of Butlavira coins
illustrated by T. Desikachari as No. 30, 31, The coin
No. 30 has a standing figure in regal robes, and on the
reverse seated figure with Tamil legend to its left
Butala and two fishes below. The presence of fish, the Pandyan crest
would indicate it is clearly a Pandya coin. But the
other coin similar to the above except the fish crest,
but bearing the name "Butalavira" might have been issued
by the Chera rulers of South Kerala, who invariably
assumed the title Butalavira. An inscription dated 1532,
from Vadaseri in Kanyakumari district, refers to the
ruler as "Jayatunganattu Sankaranarayana, Venrumankonda
Butalavira Srivira Udayamartandavarman, Thiruppappurr
Mutta Thiruvadi. Another ruler Ravivarman, of the same
family, ruling in 1536 A.D. is also given the title
"Butalavira". It is not unlikely that following the
footsteps of the Pandyas, the Chera rulers of 15th &
16th century also issued the coins and No. 31 of
Desikachari may be considered an issue of the Cheras.
The coin No. 27 of Desikachari also
listed under Pandyas, clearly reads as "Baskara.
The legend is not found in the list of
Pandyas but is found for many Kerala rulers particularly
in the 11th century A.D. However the Paleography of the
script seems to be around 14-15th century and cannot be
assigned to 11th century. The identification of the king
who issued the coin must remain open for the present.
Foot Notes
|
1.
|
Nilakanta Sastri, Age of the
Nandas and Mauryas, p. 43
|
|
2.
|
Seta Aiyar K. G. Cera kings of
the Sangam period, p. 132
|
|
3.
|
Ibid
|
|
4.
|
Sarkar. H. An arachitectural
Survey of Temples of Kerala p. 11
|
|
5.
|
Nilakanta Sastri K. A. Foreign
Notices of South India
|
|
6.
|
Radha Kumud Mookerji, Asoka p.
132
|
|
7.
|
Ibid p. 132 F.N.
|
|
8.
|
Sarkar H. Ibid p. 10
|
|
9.
|
Nagaswamy R. A. bilingual Coin
of Satavahana in "Seminar on Inscriptions"
Madras 1968; also see, "A bilingual Coin of
Vasittiputra Sia Sri Pulamavi", in the Andhra
Pradesh Journal of Archaeology, vol. 1, no 2 pp.
105-108.
|
|
10.
|
Sesha Aiyar, K.G. "Chera Kings
of the Sangam Period" p. 517.
|
|
11.
|
Nilakanta Sastri, K.A., A
comprehensive history of India, p. 123
|
|
12.
|
Mahadevan I. Corpus of he Tamil
Brahmi inscription, "Seminar on Inscriptions" p.
56. Also proceedings of IInd International
conference of Tamil studies p. 73.103
|
|
13.
|
Ibid p. 67.
|
|
14.
|
Sesha Aiyar, K.G. Cera Kings, p.
9 (P.L. Gupta places the rise of the Cheras to
4th century A.D. Early coins from Kerala 1965,
pp. 11. This is quite off the mark).
|
|
15.
|
Ibid p. 8
|
|
16.
|
Padirrupattu, Ed. U. V.
Swaminatha Iyer, Madras 1957, p. 36
|
|
17.
|
Sesha Aiyar, K.G. Cera Kings p.
15
|
|
18.
|
Conra: Nilakanta Sastri K.A.,
The Pandian Kingdom Madras, 1972, p. 84 "The
Aivar Malai record of A.D. 870, records the
renewal of the images of Parsva Bhatarar and the
Yakshis at Thiru Ayiraimalai, by one Santivira
Kuravar". Epigraphical records prove that the
present Aivar Malai near Palani is the Aiyirai
malai of the Sangam literature and that was in
the territory of the Cheras in the Sangam age.
|
|
19.
|
Sesha Aiyar, K.G. Cera Kings. P.
18. This identification of Tagadur, with a place
in Mysore, is obviously wrong. There are several
inscriptions attesting to the identity of
Tagadur with Dharmapuri, now the headquarters of
the district of the same name.
|
|
20.
|
Padirrupattu-4th decud, Ibid.
|
|
21.
|
Ibid -5th decad. Also Nilakanta
Sastri K.A., Comprehensive history of India-p.
522-523.
|
|
22.
|
Nilakanta Sastri K.A. A history
of South India-Madras 1977. p. 139. Also Agam,
verse-149.
|
|
23.
|
Sesha Aiyar, K.G. Cera Kings p.
30.
|
|
24.
|
Ibid - p. 56.
|
|
25.
|
Mahadevan I. Proceedings of the
IInd International conference of Tamil Studies,
p. 95.
|
|
26.
|
Nilakanta Sastri K.A.,
Comprehensive History of India p. 565
|
|
27.
|
Sesha Aiyar K.G., Cera Kings p.
91.
|
|
28.
|
Ibid - p. 56.
|
|
29.
|
Gupta P.L., Early coins from
Kerala, 1965, p. 66
|
|
30.
|
Ancient India II, pp. 24-25
|
|
31.
|
Gupta P. L. Ibid p. 64
|
|
32.
|
Subramaniam N. Sangam Polity p.
214 (Ka-weight; Tolkappiyam Tohaimarabu.
Kanam-gold coin ¸¡ÉÁ¢Ä¢Â¡Â¢ý ¨¸ ¯¾¢÷ §¸¡¼Öõ
Manimekhalai p. 16:10. Subramaniam holds Kanam
means a small gold coin.
|
|
33.
|
Chattopadhyaya B Coins and
Currency sysem in South India, Delhi, 1977, p.
62.
|
|
34.
|
Codrington, Ceylon coins and
currency pp. 19-20
|
|
35.
|
Desikachari T. South Indian
Coins, 1933, p. 157.
|
|
36.
|
Paripadal Ed. U. V. Swaminatha
Iyer, Madras p. 239.
|
|
37.
|
Padirrupattu, Ibid verse No. 11,
line 19.
|
|
38.
|
Desikachari T. Ibid pl. 1, Nos.
9, 10, 11, 12 & 13.
|
|
39.
|
Pandikkovai, Ed. V. Duraiswamy.
Madras, 1957.
|
|
40.
|
Nagaswamy R. Studies in Ancient
Tamil Law Society Madras 1978, pp. 9, 10
|
|
41.
|
The Tamil Nadu State
Arcaheological Department has recently
discovered this epigraph at Pulankuruohi village
(near Ponnamaravati) in Ramnad district.
|
|
42.
|
41 Nagaswamy R. Pandya Arikesari
and Pandikkovai, Prof. K.A.N. Sastri
Felicitation Volume ,1971 pp. 144-155.
|
|
43.
|
South Indian Inscriptions Vol. I
pp. 144-155
|
|
44.
|
Epigraphica Indica, Vol. VI. pp
6-11. Also Mahalingam t.v., Kanchipuram in Early
South Indian History, p. 81
|
|
45.
|
Indian Antiquary Vol. No. XXII
1893. Also Pandya Copper Plates ten (Tamil),
Madras 1967, pp. 49-64.
|
|
46.
|
Ten Pandya copper plates (Tamil)
pp. 83-123.
|
|
47.
|
Nagaswamy R. Studies in Ancient
Tamil Law and Society pp. 18-19.
|
|
48.
|
Ten pandya copper plates pp. 39
|
|
49.
|
Ibid-p. 104 Å¢ñ½¡Ç Å¢øÄÅüÌ
ŢƢ»òРި¼ ¦¸¡ÎòÐõ. (¾ÇÅ¡ö ÒÃõ ¦ºô§ÀÎ Åâ.
105).
|
|
50.
|
Raghava Iyengar M. Alvarkal Kala
Varalaru pp. 159-170
|
|
51.
|
Venkatachari K. A. K., Divya
Suri Caritam, Bombay-1978 5-1 to 26
|
|
52.
|
Sarkar H. An Architectural
Survey of Temples of Kerala pp. 20-21
|
|
53.
|
Periya Puranam, 43,
Kalarirrarivar Puranam
|
|
54.
|
Raghava Iyengar - Ibid
|
|
55.
|
Travancore Archaeological Series
Vol. II p. 9
|
|
56.
|
Sarkar H.-Ibid p. 107
|
|
57.
|
Ibid-p. Foot-notes
|
|
58.
|
Chattopadhyaya B. Ibid p. 107
|
|
59.
|
Ibid-p. 108/
|
|
60.
|
Ibid-pp. 66-69 pl. VII-332
|
|
61.
|
Lakshmi Narayana Rao N. Journal
of the Numismatic Society of India-IX pp. 100
|
|
62.
|
Vidya Prakash Coinage of South
India p. 100-102
|
|
63.
|
S.I.I. 111 p. 56
|
|
64.
|
Natana Kasinathan "Kalabras
Identified", in South Indian Studies II, Madras,
1979 pp. 180-185
|
|
65.
|
S.I.I. vol. I
|
|
66.
|
Nagaswamy R. Kalvettu
|
|
67.
|
Vidya Prakash Coinage of South
India p. 102
|
|
68.
|
Walter Elliot, Coins of Southern
India-p. 152 F.
|
|
69.
|
Vidya Prakash Ibid p. 100
|
|
70.
|
Ibid p. 100
|
|
71.
|
Travancore Archaeological Series
p. 146
|
|
72.
|
Travancore Achaeological Series
II pt. III p. 195
|
|
73.
|
Ibid p. 192
|
|
74.
|
T.A.S. III 36
|
|
75.
|
T.A.S. III 166
|
|
76.
|
T.A.S. III 46
|
|
77.
|
T.A.S. III 42
|
|
78.
|
T.A.S. III pt. I, 12
|
|
79.
|
T.A.S. III p. 192
|
|
80.
|
Ibid
|
|
81.
|
Ibid p. 217
|
|
82.
|
Sreedhara Menon K. A Survey of
Kerala History, p. 163
|
|
83.
|
Ibid p. 163
|
|
84.
|
Ibid p. 165-166
|
|
85.
|
Desikachari T. South Indian
coins p. 163
|
|
86.
|
Sreedhara Menon K. Ibid 36
|
|
|
|
